This study extends conventional life cycle assessment (LCA), which typically assumes an incident-free service life, to explicitly incorporate fire events and fire protection systems, enabling systematic quantification of their environmental consequences and mitigation effects in timber buildings. A proof-of-concept application was conducted for a timber-based residential compartment under four representative fire scenarios, ranging from minor object ignition to a fully developed enclosure fire, with and without sprinkler protection. Fire-related consequences were decomposed into combustion emissions, emergency response activities, and post-fire material replacement and integrated within a building LCA framework. The results show that fire development is the dominant driver of environmental burdens, with fully developed, non-sprinklered fires increasing impacts by more than 80% compared to small, confined fires. Material replacement emerged as the primary contributor, typically accounting for over 80% of total fire-related impacts, while direct combustion emissions played a comparatively minor role. Automatic sprinkler activation reduced total fire-related impacts by more than 85% across all indicators, while adding only 1–2% to the building's embodied impacts. These findings demonstrate that integrating fire scenarios into LCA enables a more realistic assessment of the environmental performance of timber buildings and supports informed decisions on low-carbon fire safety strategies

This paper presents a numerical and experimental study on stability until burnout of glued-laminated timber columns in compartment fires. In a previously reported experimental study, six 3.7 m long, 280 × 280 mm2timber columns designed for 60 min of standard fire resistance failed to survive various compartment fires, with four of the six columns failing due to thermal wave penetration into the cross section during the decay phase of the fire. Here, six additional compartment fire tests are conducted, supported by numerical simulations, to investigate the design of timber columns for burnout resistance. A finite element model is used to design the size of the columns to mitigate the effect of the thermal wave. Five tests on columns up to 400 × 400 mm2show that increasing the section size at constant loading enhances fire endurance, but the columns later failed due to local smoldering. While failure in the smaller columns was driven by the thermal wave and occurred within two hours of ignition, failure in the larger columns was caused by smoldering and occurred more than 10 h after ignition. In a sixth test, on a 280 × 280 mm2column, water-based fire suppression was used 35 min after ignition. The column remained stable until burnout, showing that early fire suppression may prevent failure of timber columns by addressing both the thermal wave and smoldering mechanisms

Timber framing is increasingly used as a load-bearing structural system in mid-rise and high-rise buildings. While extensive data exists from standard furnace tests, there is a lack of data on the fire performance of loaded timber members in full-scale compartment fires. Compartment fire tests are crucial to investigate a structure’s performance under conditions where the fire is let to grow naturally with the fuel and oxygen present in the room and then let to cool down as the fuel burns out. This paper presents the findings from six fire tests performed on glue laminated timber columns in a custom-built compartment. Wood cribs are used as fuel. The columns, 3680 mm long with a 280 × 280 mm2 section, are subjected to constant axial loading during the whole fire duration. Column design and loading are based on a 60-min fire resistance. The tests vary in opening factor, fire load, and wood crib size. Column failure was observed in the six tests, with failure times ranging from 35 to 71 min. In four of the tests, failure occurred after the gas temperature had started to cool down. Comparisons with tests on similar columns made in a fire resistance furnace allow comparing charring rates observed in standard conditions and in natural fires. 

Furniture and furnishings - A technical fire safety guidance – ”the parallelism method” -

This guidance document is funded and distributed by RISE, Research Institutes of Sweden AB. Addressing the fire risks posed by furniture and furnishings is crucial. Swedish fire statistics from 1999 to 2015 record 2264 fire-related deaths, with about 70% occurring in homes and 9% in other buildings. The highest fatality rates are associated with fires starting in beds and upholstered furniture, a pattern seen in many European countries and globally. Despite the significant risk from furniture and furnishings, Swedish regulations remain minimal. Unlike interior construction products, there are no established systems for classification, approval, marking, or market control. As a result, furniture and furnishings often have poor fire performance, potentially leading to rapid and intense fire development in both domestic and public environments. The purpose of this guidance document is to provide a procedure for selecting furniture and furnishings with fire safety levels that align with the fire properties of the surrounding interior materials. It focuses on individual furniture items, using fire test data to match their performance with the fire test data of interior linings. For example, a surface material with a specific Euroclass fire rating can be paired with furniture exhibiting similar fire properties. The aim is to create spaces where both interior items and construction materials exhibit comparable fire behaviour. This approach is referred to in this guidance as the "parallelism method." While this guidance is straightforward to use, it is most effective when applied by individuals with some fire safety expertise who can interpret the recommendations within the context of building regulations or fire safety engineering. Additionally, detailed chapters on fire technical properties and test methods are included to support professionals evaluating fire behaviour, conducting fire modelling, reviewing test reports, or involved in product development. The proposed actions for improving fire safety are based on international fire research and proven experience, as referenced in the guidance. However, the user bears full responsibility for applying the guidance, and the authors disclaim liability for any damages, costs, or issues arising from its use.

Trots faran med lös inredning så regleras generellt inte den lösa inredningens brandegenskaper av myndighetskrav. Dessutom saknas system för klassifikation, godkännande, märkning och kontroll såsom för byggprodukter, dvs. byggnadens fastainredning. Den lösa inredningen har därför ofta dåliga brandegenskaper och kan ge upphov till snabba och häftiga brandförlopp. Detta gäller både bostäder och offentlig miljö.

Denna väglednings syfte är därför att erbjuda en teknik att välja lös inredning utifrån dess brandegenskaper för ökad säkerhet. Den är tänkt att vara enkel att använda både för hemmiljö och för offentlig miljö. I första hand riktar vi oss till personer med brandkompetens som kan tillämpa vägledningen och sätta råden i ett sammanhang, vilket kan vara till exempel Boverkets byggregler, lagen om skydd mot olyckor, systematiskt brandskyddsarbete mm.

The recommendation is based on the co-authors’ work organized by the RILEM TC 256-SPF “Spalling of concrete due to fire: testing and modelling”. It aims to provide useful information, guidance and best practices in fire spalling assessment to laboratories that perform large-scale tests based on fire resistance test standards. It provides guidance on the spalling observation techniques during testing, as well as post-test spalling quantification/assessment methods. This document is intended to be used in conjunction with the fire resistance test standards, e.g. EN 1363-1 and ISO 834-1. © 2023, The Author(s), under exclusive licence to RILEM.

This paper describes fire tests on loaded glued laminated timber columns in which the structural response was measured during the heating and cooling phases. Identical columns with 280 × 280 mm2 cross-section and 3.7 m length were tested under various heating durations in a standard furnace to investigate integrity to full burnout. Two of the columns were subjected to ISO 834 heating until failure and their measured fire resistance was 55 and 58 min, respectively. Two columns were subjected to 15 min of ISO 834 heating followed by controlled cooling; these columns failed during the cooling phase, respectively after 98 and 153 min. Flame self-extinction occurred after approximately 40 min while smoldering continued locally. Two columns tested under 10 min of ISO 834 heating both survived the defined heating–cooling exposure. Thermocouples inside the columns show sustained temperature increases for hours after the end of the heating phase. These full-scale furnace experiments show that timber columns may fail during the cooling phase after exposure to standard heating for about 25% of the standard fire resistance duration. These results, in line with previous numerical predictions, highlight the need for further investigation into fire safety until full burnout for timber structures. 

Post-flashover fires inherently lead to external fire plumes, constituting a hazard for rapid fire spread over façades. As multi-storey mass timber buildings with internal visible timber surfaces become more common, there are concerns that such buildings would produce larger external plumes and hazards (assuming all other parameters equal). The literature reveals only indications of this, and how the actual exposure relates to different test methods for assessment is unknown. Here we utilise a series of full-scale mass timber compartment tests to quantify the exposure to the external façade. An incombustible external façade is instrumented with gauges at positions corresponding to reference data from several different assessment methods. The results show that there is an increase in plume duration, height, and temperatures when increasing the areas of exposed timber, but that this increase is less for normal- to large-opening compartments, than was previously seen in small-opening compartments. Also, normal variations in external wind speed have a larger influence on plume heights than the effect of doubling exposed timber surfaces. Test methods used for regulatory compliance differ significantly not only in exposure but also in pass/fail criteria. The proposed European large exposure method and the BS8414 method exhibit exposures on par with the severe end of what could be expected from mass timber compartments, whereas methods like SP Fire 105 and Lepir II produce significantly less severe plumes. However, the safety level is always a combination of exposure and assessment criteria. This data can help justify assessment criteria from a performance perspective. © 2023 The Authors.