The purpose of this study is to investigate how resource demand and climate impact from electric cars can be reduced by aiming for more resource efficient battery sizes and charging strategies that takes into consideration the use patterns of car owners and the availability of charging infrastructure. A comparative environmental assessment is performed for a set of use cases representing different owners of battery electric cars. The use cases include batteries of different sizes, chemistries and charging possibilities, including battery swapping where the user can change the size of the battery depending on the trip length. The results show that the configuration with the largest battery and NMC chemistry has the highest climate impact as well as resource demand in a life cycle or system perspective.

Th is method is developed for the purpose of helping suppliers to the automotive industry present a potential climate footprint of their proposed products to their customers in a quotation stage. The supplier/producer company is responsible for making a complete inventory of all inputs and outputs of the proposed product in accordance with the D ata C o llection T emplate. The method is based on the modelling of a climate footprint for a fictive average product, that can be used to present an estimated potential climate footprint for future product offers. Th e method was developed as integral parts of a climate footprint project coordinated by FKG, representing Swedish automotive component suppliers. The project resulted in this method, including an inventory tool to be used by supplier s to collect data and an average product model and calculator to estimate a potential clim ate footprint of the suppliers products. The inventory data includes information on supplied materials (types and qualities), transportation ( volume , mode, and distance), and energy sources (types and suppliers) used in production during 2021 or 2022 . This data can be used in simulations for future products. Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) consultants utilize the inventory to construct a simplified cradle to gate model in software tools like SimaPro, LCA for Experts (formerly GaBi )), or other LCA modelling software tool . This model, which employs a “simple cut off for recycled input materials and recyclable materials from production (“simple cut off” according to Ekvall et al. 2020 as recommended by EPD International see further chapter 2 and 3 for scope and modelling )), either utilizes certified climate data (e. EPDs) from sub suppliers or, more commonly, relies on general Ecoinvent data for materials and energy. A simplified LCA model for the average product from the previous year is documented and serves as the baseline for the calculation . Subsequently, a calculator is developed that can simulate a climate footprint for production of a new product in the factory based on the production volume and material mix from the previous year. In the calculator, the climate footprint of the 'core' for each main process and subprocess is treated as fixed factors proportional to the weight of the product. The upstream part treats the raw material mix (bill of materials) as a variable that can be adjusted for each product, where each raw material has specific materials) as a variable that can be adjusted for each product, where each raw material has specific climate footprint factorsclimate footprint factors.. Validation of the Validation of the method method toto developdevelop an an averageaverage--productproduct--model and the calculator is carried out by model and the calculator is carried out by a a validation bodyvalidation body.. In this first version of the methodIn this first version of the method, , the validation body is the validation body is RISE. The validation proRISE. The validation programgram builds on builds on review of review of assumed dataassumed data andand confirms the use of reasonabconfirms the use of reasonable and le and sufficient sufficient data for thedata for the simplifiedsimplified LCALCA modelmodel. The validation program. The validation program does not verify does not verify thatthat the bill of materials the bill of materials andand bill of bill of processes processes are sufficient are sufficient to produce to produce the the product/product/component butcomponent but validates the reasonableness of thvalidates the reasonableness of this is datadata..

The digital battery passport is an essential driver of sustainable production and circular economy as it enables storing and tracking data for batteries throughout the whole value chain. The BatWoMan project is paving the way towards carbon-neutral Li-ion battery cell production via new sustainable and cost-efficient methods, and by building a prototype for a digital battery passport. In this article, we outline the concept of the battery passport, including the status of relevant regulations, standards and initiatives. We then present the BatWoMan project and its design for a battery dataspace and passport. We describe relevant stakeholders and their interactions within the data space and introduce the system architecture, which is based on the International Data Spaces and Gaia-X frameworks. Finally, limitations of the research outcome are presented. © 2023 IDIMT 2023: New Challenges for ICT and Management - 31st Interdisciplinary Information Management Talks. All rights reserved.

This report contains a life cycle assessment, LCA, of recycling of lithium-ion battery, LIB, cells. It was performed in the context of the Swedish Scope-lib project. The study aims to highlight environmental hotspots with LIB recycling and shows the potential of LIB recycling. In short, the results indicate that: • the Scope-lib process operated in full scale, can potentially recover almost half of the climate impacts of producing a new NMC traction battery, the currently most common traction battery chemistry. The main reason is that the climate impact (data) of cobalt production has four folded since 2018. It emphasizes the importance of recycling scarce battery materials. • the Scope-lib process is not dependent on carbon-lean electricity to achieve a lot of climate impact avoidance. Using average European electricity mix (around 400 g CO2-eq/kWh) instead of Swedish electricity mix (around 40 g CO2-eq/kWh) only decrease the climate impact avoidance with less than 1 kg CO2-eq/kg cell or less than 10%. • recovery and recycling of ethylene carbonate (used as solvent in LIB electrolytes) shows much smaller potential climate benefits than recovery and recycling of the metals. • the resource depletion gains of the Scope-lib process follow the same trend as the climate impact gains, with the exception of aluminium. To complement the LCA, a life cycle-based risk mapping was performed which identified a particular high risk with fluorinated materials present in binders and electrolytes in NMC batteries which could potentially form hazardous chemical emissions during recycling (such as persistent PFAS) and thus need special attention.

Life cycle assessment of remanufacturing of vehicle components Life cycle assessment, LCA, has been used to compare the environmental impact of new vehicle components with remanufactured vehicle components. The aim was to develop simplified guidelines for decisions when a component, for environmental reasons, should be remanufactured, or scrapped and recycled. The study focuses on a stay, wheel spindle, link arm and electric motor from the rear trailer on a Volvo XC90 Hybrid, a traction battery from the plug-in Volvo V60 and various seats cover constructions. The figure below shows how much climate impact is avoided if a damaged component is replaced with a remanufactured component, instead of a new component.

The reduced climate impact per component or part (blue bars) varies greatly between different parts, while the climate gain per kilogram part (orange bars) is between 2-14 kg CO2 per kg part or component. Also with regard to resource depletion, all examined parts provide resource savings in remanufacturing compared with new production. The results are so unequivocally positive and the components so different that one should be able to assume that, if it is economically advantageous to remanufacture a car component, it is in all probability also environmentally beneficial. The difference between the bar in steel and the aluminium components (link arm, wheel spindle) indicates that one can count on more environmental benefits the more precious metal is used. Both the battery and the electric motor indicate potentially very large environmental benefits from remanufacturing. However, it is important that driveline components do not lose efficiency due to remanufacturing, as the use phase dominates the life cycle environmental impact of driveline components. Seat covers were investigated with an alternative focus. Remanufacturing of seat covers as an isolated component is not practiced and also not foreseen with the current construction, since they are an integrated part of a seat. Investigations therefore focused on proposed design changes and on changes of material choice. For the seat covers as they are currently used, remanufacturing assumes that they remain on the seat and are transferred to another vehicle. This requires removal of the airbag and addition of a new one in all cases. For remanufacturing of seats, economic barriers have been identified due to the relatively high demand for storage space and transport volume of car seats, and the large number of variations in seat design with covers in textile and leather in several colours. Regarding the simplified LCA methodology used in the project, the following can be concluded: • New manufacturing is often complex and thus resource-intensive to model. An alternative is then to instead compare with existing LCA studies on similar components. This strategy was applied, in this study, regarding battery and electric motor. • The seat cover manufacturing is modelled based on existing models for textile processes intended for apparel and fashion evaluation (Mistra future fashion and several studies related to environmental product declarations, EPD). With the perspective of a supplier who explores options in design that reduce the climate impact of a future seat cover, the focus for this case was on the cradle to gate stages of seat cover manufacturing. Remanufacturing of seat covers is not well established and based on assumptions and thus not modelled as completely as the other parts of the life cycle. • The sub-components that are replaced in the remanufacturing need not be included in the remanufacturing model if they are included in the new manufacturing model, since they even out. However, this simplification presupposes a separate, or sufficiently detailed LCA model of the new production, so that replaced sub-components can be removed there. • Large uncertainty about how material recycling gains should be calculated. The rule of crediting with the same material data set used for the new manufacture provides a degree of certainty, but further guidelines would be desirable. Use of cut-off methodology is a possibility.

Spent alkaline and zinc-carbon batteries contain valuable elements (notably, Zn and Mn), which need to be recovered to keep a circular economy. In this study, the black mass materials from those spent batteries are pyrometallurgically treated via a series of process steps in a pilot-scale KALDO furnace to produce an Mn–Zn product, a ZnO product, and an MnO (manganese monoxide) product, toward applications of Mn–Zn micronutrient fertilizer, zinc metal, and manganese alloy, respectively. After an oxidative roasting step, an Mn–Zn product, containing 43% Mn, 22% Zn, and negligible amounts of toxic elements (notably, Cd, Hg, and Pb), could be produced, being suitable for the micronutrient fertilizer application. After a reductive roasting step, a ZnO product and an MnO product are produced. The attained ZnO product, containing up to 84.6% ZnO, is suitable for zinc metal production when the leaching steps are taken to remove most of the Cl and F in the product. The attained MnO product, containing up to 91.7% MnO, is of premium quality for manganese alloy production, preferably for SiMn alloy production due to its low phosphorus content. The proposed application scenarios could substantially improve the recovery efficiency of those spent batteries. 

Electrification of vehicles has for decades been explored as a possible solution to the problem of climate change. Today, in 2021, the issue is no longer whether the electrification of vehicle fleets ought to happen but rather how it can be achieved with as little environmental impact as possible. The objective of this thesis is therefore to facilitate the use of life cycle assessment (LCA) for the evaluation and improvement of the environmental performance of electric vehicle traction batteries. The lack of LCA data on several traction battery chemistries and some associated LCA methodological difficulties have been identified as important research gaps. The broader purpose of this thesis is to contribute to sustainable industrial and societal change that involves new technologies. This thesis examines three research questions related to LCA in new technology introduction: (1) LCA data issues regarding present and future lithium traction battery chemistries. (2) LCA methodological issues regarding present and future lithium traction battery chemistries. (3) Use of LCA in product and production development to advance the introduction of sustainable consumption and production of any new technology.  The results emphasise e.g. to always include the use phase in LCA traction battery studies and to improve battery energy density but not to the detriment of battery internal efficiency. Furthermore, it points to use two abiotic depletion measures to reflect scarce materials in both the short term and the long term. Additionally, it is recommended to calculate the results for all relevant functional units, because it facilitates comparisons and reflection, to choose environmental impact categories for traction batteries from a ranking list, as well as to use chemical risk assessment from a life cycle perspective to complement and develop within-LCA toxicity impact methods. To some extent, the above results are applicable for most development of new technology. A general recommendation for all technology development striving to include LCA is to use screening LCA, chemical risk assessment and idea generation in early phases to help build engagement, competence and data for a full LCA in later phases.

Elektrifiering av fordon har i årtionden undersökts som en möjlig lösning på klimatproblemet. Idag, 2021, är frågan inte längre om elektrifiering av fordonsflottor borde ske utan snarare hur det kan uppnås med så liten miljöpåverkan som möjligt. Syftet med denna avhandling är därför att underlätta användningen av livscykelanalys (LCA) för utvärdering och förbättring av miljöprestanda för elektriska drivbatterier. Bristen på LCA-data för flera batterikemier samt några därtill hörande LCA-metodologiska svårigheter identifierades som viktiga forskningsgap. Det bredare syftet med denna avhandling är att bidra till hållbar industriell och samhällelig förändring som involverar ny teknik. Denna avhandling undersöker tre forskningsfrågor relaterade till LCA i introduktion av ny teknik: (1) LCA-data om nuvarande och framtida kemier för litiumbatterier. (2) LCA-metodologiska problem med nuvarande och framtida kemier för litiumbatterier. (3) Hur man använder LCA i produkt- och produktionsutveckling för att främja införandet av hållbar konsumtion och produktion av ny teknik i allmänhet. Resultaten betonar t.ex. att alltid inkludera användningsfasen i LCA[1]studier av drivlinebatterier och att förbättra batteriets energitäthet, men inte så att det försämrar batteriets interna effektivitet. Dessutom pekar den på att använda två mått för abiotisk resursutarmning för att spegla knappa material på kort sikt och på lång sikt. Det rekommenderas även att beräkna resultaten för alla relevanta funktionella enheter, eftersom det underlättar jämförelser och reflektion, att välja miljöeffektkategorier för drivlinebatterier från en rankinglista, samt att använda kemisk riskbedömning ur ett livscykelperspektiv för att komplettera och utveckla LCA-metoderna för toxicitet. I viss utsträckning är ovanstående rekommendationer tillämpliga för utvecklingen av all ny teknik. En allmän rekommendation för all teknikutveckling som strävar efter att inkludera LCA är att använda screening LCA, kemisk riskbedömning och idégenerering i tidiga faser för att hjälpa till att bygga engagemang, kompetens och data för en fullständig LCA i senare faser.

This report contains a life cycle assessment of hot dip galvanized steel and refurbishment methods for hot dip galvanized steel. The purpose of the report is to investigate the environmental impact of different refurbishment methods and to compare the environmental impact of replacing hot-dip galvanized steel structures with maintenance of the corrosion protection of hot-dip galvanized steel structures. The analysis was carried out within the framework of an assignment performed for RISE KIMAB by Mats Zackrisson at RISE IVF, in the project Optimal maintenance of hot-dip galvanized products. Paint manufacturers, painting contractors, painting inspectors and researchers at RISE KIMAB have all contributed data and knowledge to the study. The results show that the pre-treatment and the zinc can give significant impacts for the refurbishment options. From a climate perspective, the results indicate that the refurbishment options need only prolong the life with 1-6 years, which, compared to the expected life extension 30 years indicates a large climate impact reduction potential with any of the refurbishment options. From an ozone formation perspective, the results indicate that the refurbishment options need to prolong the life with 3-33 years, which, compared to the expected life extension 30 years indicates that the right choice of refurbishment option is crucial in order to achieve potential ozone impact reductions with refurbishment. The practical corrosion tests carried out in the project will give more definite answers. The difference in potential impact between the refurbishment options should not be taken as absolute, since the information was mostly gathered from open sources, like safety data sheets and product information sheets. Nevertheless, the low (inherent) ozone formation impacts associated with the waterborne zinc silicate is worth mentioning, as well as Induraguard 9200´s environmentally benign pre-treatment (wire brushing). The study focuses on 8 mm thick steel structures. The thicker and heavier object, the more is, in general, to gain by refurbishing instead of replacing with new infrastructure object.

Synthetic diamond competes with the conventional cemented carbide (WC–Co) tool material in some applications due to its extreme hardness. However, so far, these materials have not been compared from a life cycle perspective regarding their environmental and resource impacts. The aims of this study are i) to provide detailed life cycle assessment (LCA) results for industrial polycrystalline diamond (PCD) production from diamond grit produced via high-pressure high-temperature (HPHT) synthesis and ii) to conduct the first comparative LCA of PCD and WC-Co tools for the cases of wood working and titanium alloys machining. The results show that the main hotspot in HPHT synthesis of diamond grit, which is the main precursor to PCD, is the use of WC-Co in the high-pressure apparatus. In PCD tool production, the electricity input and the use of tungsten and molybdenum contribute the most to environmental and resource impacts. The environmental and resource impacts of the PCD tool production can be reduced with 53–83% if solar electricity and full WC-Co recycling is applied. The comparison shows high environmental and resource improvements when substituting WC-Co tools with PCD tools in wood working, but not in titanium alloys machining. © 2020 The Authors