This study reveals the magnitude of stress spread angles in the design of plywood gusset plates when subjected to uniaxial tension, with a specific focus on mechanical connections. Plywood plates with elevating widths at three different load-face grain angles were destructively tested. The test series continued with consecutively increased plate widths until the measured forces reached plateaus. Two models, namely, the classic and modified stress spread models, adopted from the Whitmore effective width theory, were investigated to account for the observed phenomenon. The classic stress spread model considers a rigid fastener array and an evenly distributed stress block. A closer-to-reality modified model considers the summation of stress blocks contributed from each fastener line. For both models mentioned, the magnitudes of corresponding spread angles were calibrated utilizing a fitting scheme considering maximized R-square values. The validity of both models was later examined and validated versus the previous experimental data reported in the literature. It was found that the classic model, despite some close predictions, gave over-estimations on the load-bearing capacities of several connection patterns. The modified model was found to be conservative for almost all investigated fastener patterns. Accordingly, a hybrid adoption of stress spread models was suggested.

There is growing interest recently in reducing the usage of metals in timber structures. Birch plywood possesses satisfactory mechanical properties compared to other wood-based panels and is promising to be utilized in timber connections as a substitute for the more conventional slotted-in metal plate. There are essentially two possibilities to connect plywood plates and other timber elements by means of either mechanical connections or adhesively bonded connections. Despite the more commonly adopted mechanical connections in current timber structures, the adhesively bonded connections hold the distinct advantages of being more cost-effective, stiffer, and with a lower risk of moisture penetration in the timber elements. When employing birch plywood in timber structure applications such as trusses and frame corners, stresses from different directions need to be transmitted by the plywood gusset plate. However, it is still uncertain how the bonding strength is affected by different loading angles to the face grain. This research question, specifically concerning the bonding strength between birch plywood and spruce glulam, has been addressed in this paper. It was found that the bonding strength varies within a relatively small range when the load-to-plywood face grain angle varies from 0° to 90°, which is promising for the development of adhesively bonded joints. Failure mainly occurred in glulam at 0° and 15°; while at other angles, a mixture of cohesive failure in glulam and plywood face veneer was dominant. The weak angle-dependence of the bonding strength can be explained by further checking the shear strength of the weaker wood adherends between glulam and plywood. A strong positive correlation was observed between bonding strength and the wood shear strength. 

The design of timber connections is of vital importance in timber structures. Bonded connections exhibit the advantages of lower cost, higher load-bearing capacity, and higher stiffness compared to conventional mechanical connections. However, the potential of the bonded connections has yet to be fully exploited, not only due to their sensitivity to the adhesive types and process-related parameters but also due to the lack of studies regarding the structural performance of the bonded connection in various loading conditions. In this paper, birch plywood plates were utilized to adhesively connect two glulam beam halves to create a longer span. Plywood made of birch was chosen because birch is highly resourced on the Eurasian continent, with its mechanical properties better than most softwoods. Specifically, glulam beams were connected by birch plywood plates at mid-span and then loaded in four-point bending. Four test series with two different bonding areas and birch plywood face grain orientations were carried out. The bonded region was designed as the weakest part to investigate the failure modes, moment capacity, bending stiffness, and moment-rotation angle relationships. Furthermore, numerical models were developed to predict the structural behaviors in the linear elastic stage, while analytical models were proposed and subsequently modified to predict the moment-carrying capacities. Both numerical and analytical models displayed satisfactory agreement with the test results.

This paper focuses on a particular application of birch plywood in adhesively bonded connections, namely, a node of a timber truss. The aim is to investigate the influence of the plywood’s additional width and the load-to-face grain angles on its load-bearing capacity in tension (tensile capacity). The experimental tests started from the case with the plywood width the same as the glulam width. The reference tensile strengths tested from the specimens with a small gap between glulam elements are high at any load-to-face grain angle, i.e., around 51 MPa, 44 MPa, and 41 MPa at 0°, 22.5°, and 45° to the face grain respectively, due to the changed crack paths of the 22.5° and 45° plywood. The very low angle-dependent tensile strength is unique for cross-grained veneer-based panels in adhesively bonded connections, and is promising for applications in truss nodes. With the increase of the plywood width, the tensile capacity of birch plywood tended to reach a plateau. Test results indicated a low angle-dependence of the maximum tensile capacities of birch plywood but the plateaus were reached at different plywood widths. This phenomenon can be well interpreted by introducing the concept of effective widths and spreading angles. The specific spreading angles were determined by comparing the predicted tensile capacity to the test results, which should be valid for adhesively bonded birch plywood plates in truss nodes irrespective of the geometrical parameters. 

Due to the increasing interest in reducing the usage of metals in the construction sector, birch plywood has shown good potential in structural engineering and timber connections as a substitute for the more conventional slotted-in metal plate solutions. However, a proper way of bonding birch plywood with other timber parts that results in adequate connection strength has not been fully investigated. In this paper, experimental studies were carried out to investigate the proper workflow when manufacturing bonded connections made of birch plywood and spruce glulam beams. Tensile shear mechanical tests were then conducted on produced bonded joints to evaluate the bond strength. Three adhesives, i.e. melamine-urea-formaldehyde (MUF), phenol–resorcinol–formaldehyde (PRF), and two-component polyurethane (2C PUR) were evaluated in dry and moist conditions. The influence of three pressing methods, i.e. (a) screw-gluing, (b) clamping by means of clamps, and (c) clamping by application of weight loads, on the bonding strength was investigated. The bonding strength was thereafter compared with the shear strength of spruce glulam and the wood failure percentage was also examined in this study. © 2023 The Author(s). 

Although building systems made of cross-laminated timber (CLT) have become common in Sweden in the past 20 years and they have developed rapidly during the same period, steps remain to be taken to simplify the assembly of such systems, especially at construction sites. Current construction methods, however, remain labour-intensive and thus show room for improvement.

This paper describes a novel connection for the assembly of building elements made of CLT. Simple and inexpensive, the connection is fairly insensitive to manufacturing tolerances and enables rapid, more efficient construction than the connections for CLT structures currently used. Test results show the excellent strength and stiffness of the connection, which also allows the replacement of numerous fasteners, including nails and screws, with only a single steel rod. 

Korslimmat trä (KL-trä) för byggnadsändamål är en produkt som togs fram i Centraleuropa i mitten av 1990-talet. Syftet med förstudien är att i samverkan utforska förslag för hur en framtida resurseffektivare KL-träprodukt kan utformas. Målet är att ta fram underlag för utveckling och genera en samling kring frågan. Det finns en medvetenhet för de omvärldsfaktorer som påverkar byggandet med KL-trä. Det finns en ökad efterfrågan på trä i byggsektorn och det finns ett dynamiskt tänkesätt för att ersätta betong med KL-trä. Ökad användning av skogsråvara, global uppvärmning och minskad tillgång via begränsningar i skogsbruk väcker frågor. Vilken råvara har vi i framtiden, vilka trädslag och hur ser tillgången ut? Det resulterande materialet har analyserats utifrån de olika perspektiven som representeras av intressentgrupperna i värdekedjan för byggande med KL-trä. Rapporten avslutas med projektidéer som framkom under arbetet med förstudien.

Cross-laminated timber (CLT) for house construction is a product that was developed in Central Europe in the mid-1990s. The purpose of this study is to collaboratively explore proposals for how a more efficient CLT product can be designed for the future. The goal is to produce a basis for development and generate a consensus around the issue. There is an awareness of the environmental factors that affect design with CLT. In addition, an increased demand for wood in the building sector has resulted in a dynamic mindset to replace concrete with CLT. Increased use of forest raw materials, global warming and reduced access via restrictions in forestry raise questions such as: What raw materials will we have in the future? Which tree species will be available? How large will the supply of raw materials be? The resulting material has been analysed based on the different perspectives represented by the stakeholder groups in the value chain for building with CLT. The report concludes with project ideas that emerged during the work on the feasibility study.

Prefabricated external wall elements for CLT systems

This is a first pre-study to how building with cross-laminated timber (CLT) as a frame system in buildings could be made more efficient using prefabricated exterior wall elements as frame completion for CLT buildings. In carrying out this study, CLT building in Sweden as a rule involves an efficient frame erection of the CLT elements, but with a relatively slow phase to assemble the exterior frame completion. External frame completion of CLT buildings is usually carried out on construction scaffolding, where the layers of insulation and surface layer are built up on site. Prefabrication of the outer layers of the CLT frame that is lifted into place has the potential to save a lot of labor time and thus costs. The report presents requirements and practical aspects that must be taken into account in order for prefabricated exterior wall elements to be feasible in terms of requirements and in practice. The purpose of the report has also been to give tips, inspiration and ideas to consider when producing prefabricated exterior wall elements. In the study, an example solution has been developed with the aim of being wood based to as high degree as possible. The result shows that with relatively simple means it is possible to build a prefabricated wall element that meets established requirements. It is desirable that the outer wall elements are hung in place with the minimum possible finishing work on the facade. When it comes to the division of external wall elements, it is practical to follow a similar division and measurements as for the CLT boards to facilitate handling, assembly and lifting. It should be avoided to have sockets (window panes, door holes and the like) that are broken in its interface between the external wall elements to facilitate uniformity in the dimensioning of the elements. The study shows that it is realistic to create prefabricated exterior wall elements for CLT frames.

Laminated veneer products (LVPs) are veneers glued together into a predetermined shape. Experimental and numerical investigations were performed under lamination and simultaneously bending of veneer laminate to study the stress distribution in the laminate. Laminates of different thicknesses were made of peeled veneers of European beech. The veneers were coated with adhesive, inserted in a mould which had the shape of a semicircle, and finally pressed at 20°C to a laminate. Two Teflon-polymer films including sensors for measurement of the contact pressure were placed on both sides of the laminate to measure the local contact pressure (contact stress) between the laminate and the mould. At the beginning of the bending process, the contact stresses were locally distributed over the laminate in a similar pattern as in a three-point bending; after the laminate was further bent, the stress distribution rearranged to be as in four-point bending. In the end of the moulding, the local contact stresses increased over the entire laminate and reached a ‘peak-value’ over bent area in the middle part of the mould. A finite-element model was created to study the bending process. Regarding the overall development of the contact stress variations, the experimental and the numerical results agreed.

 The aim of the present study was to investigate the relationships between contact pressure, temperature, hardener content and pressing time fixed at different levels and the strength of the UF adhesive bond, in order to develop a model to predicting the bonding strength. Bond strength was measured with the Adhesive Bonding Evaluation System, and a linear model for predicting adhesive bond strength using four independent variables was developed (R2 = 0.75). The strongest parameter was pressing time, followed by hardener content and temperature, all of which explained variation in bond strength at the same level. Pressure had no significant influence on the bond strength.