The lifespan of construction works is crucial to achieve a low environmental impact for aprovided function. Supplementary cementitious materials are increasingly used in concrete production where the effect on the service life of structures needs to be assessed. In order to achieve a long service life, the design, flexibility in the design and workmanship also needs to be addressed.

Today’s LCC and LCA analyses are based on statistics of service life of older bridges and are not material specific. There is still a lack of information about how the service life of concrete bridges is affected by different measures. The overall goal of this project was to close this information gap. The project aimed at describing key factors that affect the lifespan of concrete bridges. Key factors may reflect aspects of both durability and the utility of the design. The purpose was to investigate how the service life can be included in LCA and LCC analyses and to create a basis for future LCA and LCC analyses of concrete road bridges.

Factors affecting the service life of concrete bridges have been identified through a literature survey and interviews. The studies comprised the service life of concretebridges, durability, service life models, requirements and guidelines, previous LCA and LCC studies as well as service life-extending measures throughout the whole lifecycle from material production to the end-of-life.

The studies showed that reinforcement corrosion caused by chlorides is the most common cause of damage in concrete bridges where the service life of parts of theconstruction is usually shorter than the design service life. Even though frost resistance has historically been more restricting when choosing a concrete composition. The restrictions have, however, been reduced lately but there needs to be more focus on finding a design method that takes into account the impact of the concrete composition regarding reinforcement corrosion in order to find the most suitable solution for each individual case.

The study shows the service life of concrete bridges depends not only on the expert’s knowledge of concrete but also on quality of execution. There is great potential to extend the service life of concrete bridges and to reduce their climate impact. However, it is important that the service life-extending measures also have a low embodied impact.

The results of the survey show that technology and cost are the highest priority for mostrespondents, except for researchers where the focus is more on the environment and durability. Many also consider that contractors should set more demands towards environmentally friendly solutions.

The results are compiled in the form of recommendations for reduced environmental impact and costs, as well as for how an LCA and LCC can be carried out with regard to service life.

A methodology was developed for qualitative assessment and characterisation of particle losses from nanocomposites during service life. The methodology can be generalised to other systems where the material fragments during ageing and can be extended to quantitative analysis. A chamber was constructed for ageing of selected materials, which enabled effective collection and subsequent analysis of released particles. A combination of scanning and transmission electron microscopy and energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy was found to be suitable for characterising particles in terms of size, shape and content. The methodology was tested on a common nanoclay composite with polypropylene as the matrix. There was no need for physical/mechanical wear to generate particles, slow flow of air and elevated temperature led to cracking and fragmentation of the material, and subsequent release of nanocomposite particles containing embedded or protruding clay. The release of pure clay particles and polypropylene particles was also detected. Using the methodology, it was observed that even in ‘mild’ degradation conditions (pure thermo-oxidation with no wear), fillers and nanocomposite particles can be released to the environment, which is an environmental and health concern. © 2021 The Authors

Incorporation of additives into a reinforced concrete matrix to delay or even completely avoid the initiation of corrosion during the service-life of the construction is a widely pursued topic. One of the new promising technologies achieving increased interest is to incorporate corrosion inhibitors encapsulated in layered double hydroxide (LDH). LDH structures follow a controlled release of the inhibitor while chloride is efficiently trapped at the same time. Another type of nanostructure additive offering self-protection ability in concrete is polyhedral oligomeric silsesquioxanes (POSS) developed to exhibit water-repellent functionalities protecting the reinforcement from corrosive attack. In the present laboratory work, the enhanced performance of concrete infrastructures in a marine environment was studied using a SCC design. The addition of LDH (0.5, 1 and 2 % by mass of binder (bmb)) and POSS (2 and 4 % additive level) was explored. Migration and diffusion Cl transport tests have been performed towards corrosion protection of reinforcing bars. The results showed that Cl transport decreases with the concrete maturity, and this is even more effective for concretes with LDH and POSS. This delay effect is more pronounced in the unidirectional diffusional Cl transport. LDH is significantly retarding the initiation of rebar corrosion.

Utilizing iron silicate copper slag as supplementary cementitious material (SCM) is a means to improve resource efficiency and lower the carbon dioxide emissions from cement production. Despite multiple studies on the performance of these slags in SCM applications, the variations in cooling procedure, grinding, and methods for evaluating reactivity limit the ability to assess the influence of chemical composition on reactivity from the literature data. In this study, a methodology was developed to synthesize iron silicate slags, which were then evaluated for their inherent reactivity using the R3 calorimeter-based experiments. The results demonstrated that laboratory-scale granulation produced the same reactivity as industrially granulated slag. Furthermore, a synthesized triplicate sample showed high repeatability. Based on these two aspects, this method can be used to systematically study the influence of chemical composition on the inherent reactivity of iron silicate slags while producing results that are directly translatable to industrial slags. © 2023 by the authors.

The metallurgical and cement industries contribute significantly to anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions. Utilizing oxidic by-products from the metallurgical industry as supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs) can improve resource efficiency and reduce emissions from cement production. Iron silicate copper slags have been studied as SCMs, but mainly in systems where Portland cement is used as an activator. There is limited research on the inherent reactivity of the slag under changing processing conditions. The present study offers insight into the effect of granulation temperature and grinding on the inherent reactivity of an industrially produced iron silicate copper slag. The results showed that granulation temperature had an insignificant effect on reactivity, while grinding generated substantial improvements. The latter effect was concluded to stem from the increased specific surface area, increased number of sites for nucleation and growth of hydrates, and changes in the inherent reactivity owing to structural changes induced by the grinding. 

Abstract Bridges constitute an important part of the infrastructure. For bridges to have the longest possible service life with minimum repairs, the maintenance is of great importance. One type of bridge maintenance that is rarely researched is the continuous preventive maintenance. The continuous preventive maintenance consists of removal of vegetation, cleaning of bridge joints and drainage systems as well as high-pressure washing of the structure. The effect of washing is discussed but not properly researched. A study on the effectiveness of high-pressure washing on concrete is therefore being conducted. An accelerated test method is being developed to mimic field testing. The method has been developed through tests on small concrete specimens subjected to fluctuating temperature, fluctuating moisture, and repeatable exposure to de-icing salt during several cycles. The specimens are of two recipes where one represents an old concrete bridge with rather high water-cement ratio (0.6) and the other one represents a new concrete bridge with a low water-cement ratio (0.4). The first two versions of the method are described. The second version shows promising results, but the method needs further development to incorporate additional factors.

Functional testing of waterproofing systems for use behind ceramic tiling based on flexible sheets 2022 This research project is a repetition of previously completed projects. These projects span a long period of time, 12 years. The projects were completed during the period 2010 to 2022. Functional testing The result is better than before. 2022 2019 (1) 2016 (2) 2014 (3) 2010 (4) Result Result Result Result Result Result No leakage 9 (47 %) 6 (32 %) 8 (40 %) 3 (15 %) 0 (0 %) Leakage 10 (53 %) 13 (68 %) 12 (60 %) 17 (85 %) 5 (100 %) In this investigation, most of the leaks are located to penetrations of large and small sewer pipes. In this investigation, we have on several occasions seen that the pipe sleeves have had substandard quality. This has manifested itself in the fact that the polymeric material which is to seal around the pipe during the test has lost its sealing ability. It is probable that the material has developed a residual deformation (settling) which means that the material has lost its ability to seal around the pipe. We have also noticed that pipe cuffs have delaminated, the layers in the cuff during the test have been divided into their components. Leakage has also occurred at inner corners, outer corners and at chafing. Only a few, two, leaks at connections to floor drains have been noted. Better yet, none of the examined waterproofing systems showed leaks that were so extensive that one can speak of a total damage. Water vapour resistance and mass per unit area The vast majority of investigated waterproofing foils have a water vapour resistance of between 2.5 and 4.5 million s m, which is a high or very high value. Results for five waterproofing foils fall below 2.5 million s / m. Based on the determinations of water vapor resistance and basis weight, it can be concluded that probably six of the waterproofing suppliers have developed new or changed foils since the last survey. The trend of wanting to make thinner foils seems to have been broken. Most of the waterproofing foils have a higher vapor passage resistance now than in the previous survey. It is also noteworthy that the PVC sealing layer has a low water vapor passage resistance. The waterproofing foil has basically the same basis weight now compared to the previous survey. Indication of long-term properties To obtain an indication of the amount of added antioxidants that improve the long-term properties of the materials, DSC analyses of the waterproofing foils have been performed. Compared with the previous study, the induction temperatures are at about the same level as before, only small differences occur. The average induction temperature for all polyethylene films is 216 ° C and, in summary, the materials appear to be stabilized at the same level as the previous study. In the same way as in the survey, 2016, most materials seem to be more stabilized for long-term use compared with the previous study, 2014. However, for all analysed materials, to make a reliable service life prediction of the material, a more comprehensive aging study is recommended

The building sector accounts for 40% of the total energy consumed in Europe at annual basis, together with the relevant Greenhouse Gas (GHG) emissions. In order to mitigate these impacts, the concept and establishment of the Nearly Zero Energy Buildings (NZEBs) is under continuous and intensive research. In fact, as the energy used for buildings’ operation becomes more efficient, impacts resulting from the buildings’ embodied energy become of more importance. Therefore, the selection of building materials and components is of high significance, as these affect the energy performance and potential environmental impacts of the building envelopes. The objective of this study is to perform a preliminary Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) on advanced multifunctional building components, aiming to achieve lower embodied emissions in NZEBs. The advanced components analyzed are composite panels for facade elements of building envelopes, providing thermal efficiency. The design of sustainable building envelope systems is expected to upgrade the overall environmental performance of buildings, including the NZEBs. The findings of this study constitute unambiguous evidence on the need for further research on this topic, as substantial lack of data concerning embodied impacts is presented in literature, adding to the growing discussion on NZEBs at a whole life cycle perspective across Europe. This research has shown that the electricity required from the manufacturing phase of the examined building components is the main contributor to climate change impact and the other environmental categories assessed. Sensitivity analysis that has been performed indicated that the climate change impact is highly depended on the electricity grid energy mix across Europe. Taking into account the current green energy transition by the increase of the renewable energy sources in electricity production, as well as the future upgrade of the manufacturing processes, it is expected that this climate change impact will be mitigated. Finally, the comparison between the CLC thermal insulator and other foam concretes in literature showed that the materials of the building components examined do not present any diversions in terms of environmental impact. © 2022 by the authors.

The pan-European “European Plate Observing System (EPOS)” is focussed on Europe and adjacent regions and includes geophysical monitoring networks, local observations (including permanent in-situ and volcano observatories), topographic/surface dynamics information, surface and subsurface geological information, experimental and laboratory data and functions, and satellite data. In 2021 the Swedish Research Council (VR) approved an application for Sweden to join EPOS-ERIC, formally establishing existing collaborations between EPOS and Swedish research infrastructures.

The report provides a knowledge base on the digital transformation in the water industry, its visionand potential. Key success factors are pointed out and challenges with workforce competence,data management and cybersecurity is outlined. A catalogue with ten examples of successful digitalapplications is provided for inspiration.

Digitalisation has developed over half a century and is one of the global trends defining society of today and future. Digitalisation is envisioned to help water utilities to become: i) community orientated and digitally integrated with customers and society; ii) digitally transformed end-to-end throughout the value-chain and interconnected between business units; iii) predictive & proactive, utilizing models and applications for control and decision support; iv) visually communicative with customers and society, creating customers aware of the value of water; and financially sustainable by optimal operation (OPEX), and sustainable investments (CAPEX). Digitalisation is a process for business development, where digital solutions are used for automation and innovation. Utilizing the potential of the technological innovation requires a parallel organisational transformation. Any implementation of systems or applications must be motivated in actual needs for the organisation and service delivery. Prior to any digitalisation, identifying issues and areas of improvement is essential. Starting the digital journey, motivating employees, improving the digital culture and creating acceptance of new processes are needed on all levels. Most digital applications require collection, storage, sharing and integrated analysis of large amounts of data. This includes both soft and hard digital infrastructure.

Heating of tap water makes up the lion share of the total energy used in the urban water cycle, up to 90 %. Estimates show that 780 to 1,150 kWh per person and year is used in Sweden for heating water. This energy mainly ends up in the sewers. Even if variations in energy use for this purpose are large and savings are possible, wastewater heat recovery, using heat exchangers or heat pumps, has a large potential.

In recent years, the use of Phase Change Materials (PCMs) in cementitious materials have become of vital importance due to their ability to absorb and release the heat and promote thermal comfort in building applications, which is a requirement for saving energy and sustainable infrastructure. The presented study aimed at investigating the PCMs of different phase transition temperatures in cementitious system and their influence on hydration and mechanical properties of the system. In this study, three PCMs with different phase transition temperatures (24 °C, 29 °C and 58 °C) were incorporated into cement paste at various dosages. The mechanical and rheological properties of the cement pastes were evaluated using compressive strength, density, and slump flow measurement methods. In addition, isothermal calorimetry and semi-adiabatic calorimetry measurements were used to elucidate hydration attributes of the cement paste. The results reveal that both the phase transition temperature of PCM and its amount have a crucial effect on the properties of the cement-based material. Especially, the high phase transition temperature (58 °C) PCM has enhanced the heat of hydration and stabilized the temperature during the cement hydration, that resulted in higher compressive strength of the cementitious system. Whereas ambient phase transition temperature (24 °C and 29 °C) PCMs have negatively influenced the rate of strength development of the cementitious system. The slow rate of strength development was found to be attributed to reduction in heat of hydration, which was confirmed through the calorimetry studies.

In Swedish tunnel construction, a critical issue that has been repeatedly acknowledged is corrosion and, consequently, failure of the rock bolts in rock support systems. The defective installation of rock bolts results in the formation of cavities in the cement mortar that is regularly used to fill the area under the dome plates. These voids allow for water-ingress to the rock bolt assembly, which results in corrosion of rock bolt components and eventually failure. In addition, the current installation technique consists of several manual steps with intense labor works that are usually done in uncomfortable and exhausting conditions, e.g., under the roof of the tunnels. Such intense tasks also lead to a considerable waste of materials and execution errors. Moreover, adequate quality control of the execution is hardly possible with the current technique. To overcome these issues, a nonshrinking/ expansive cement-based mortar filled in the paper packaging has been developed in this study which properly fills the area under the dome plates without or with the least remaining cavities, ultimately that diminishes the potential of corrosion. This article summarizes the development process and the experimental evaluation of this technique for the installation of rock bolts. In the development process, the cementitious mortar was first developed using specific cement and shrinkage reducing/expansive additives. The mechanical and flow properties of the mortar were then evaluated using compressive strength, density, and slump flow measurement methods. In addition, isothermal calorimetry and shrinkage/expansion measurements were used to elucidate the hydration and durability attributes of the mortar. After obtaining the desired properties in both fresh and hardened conditions, the developed dry mortar was filled in specific permeable paper packaging and then submerged in water bath for specific intervals before the installation. The tests were enhanced progressively by optimizing different parameters such as shape and size of the packaging, characteristics of the paper used, immersion time in water and even some minor characteristics of the mortar. Finally, the developed prototype was tested in a lab-scale rock bolt assembly with various angles to analyze the efficiency of the method in real life scenario. The results showed that the new technique improves the performance of the rock bolts by reducing the material wastage, improving environmental performance, facilitating and accelerating the labor works, and finally enhancing the durability of the whole system. Accordingly, this approach provides an efficient alternative for the traditional way of tunnel bolt installation with considerable advantages for the Swedish tunneling industry.

One promising way to improve the efficiency of borehole heat exchangers (BHEs) in shallow geothermal applications is to enhance the thermal properties of the materials involved in its construction. Early attempts, such as using metal tubes in the 1980s or the utilization of thin–foil hoses, did not succeed in being adopted by the market for diverse reasons (cost, corrosion, fragility, etc…). In parallel, the optimization of pipe size, the use of double-U-tubes, thermally enhanced grout, etc. were able to bring the measure for the BHE efficiency, the borehole thermal resistance, from 0.20 to 0.15 K/(Wm) down to 0.08–0.06 K/(Wm) in the best solutions today. A further improvement cannot be expected without development of new, dedicated materials, combining the versatility of plastic like PE with an increased thermal conductivity that matches the respective properties of the rock and soil. This goal was included in the Strategic Research and Innovation Agenda of the European Technology Platform on Renewable Heating and Cooling in 2013. Within an EU supported project, both BHE pipes and grouting materials have been produced prototypically in small amounts, suitable for the first tests in the intended environment. The present work explains the research pathways envisaged and the resulting sensitivity analysis to highlight the influence of some of the most critical parameters that affect the overall performance of a GSHP system. The results have allowed guiding the real development of more efficient new advanced materials for different scenarios representative of different European regions. Finally the developed materials and their properties are discussed, including a comparative assessment about their compliance with reference material properties as currently seen in the BHE market. © 2020 The Author(s)

Fourth generation district heating networks (4GDH) must be designed for future energy systems, integrating renewable volatile energy sources, with lower operation temperatures, and consequent reduction of heat losses and increased energy efficiency. The lower levels of operating temperature and the greater amount of cyclic loading, influence aging, and the service life of 4GDH pipelines, differently from traditional district heating (DH) networks, and thus require proper investigation of the system response at the cross-sectional level. To evaluate the material durability of 4GDH pipelines, we have analyzed the behavior of the service steel pipe, the insulation foam, and their adhesive interaction, using an innovative analytical and experimental procedure. This paper describes the influence of traditional and future operational loading conditions on the performance of preinsulated bonded single-pipe systems, representing the majority of currently operating DH pipelines. The performed fatigue analysis of the steel service pipe showed that the lifetime of 4GDH pipelines is expected to increase because of the lower operating temperature, and the low impact of thermal loading volatility in the network, compared to conventional DH. The accelerated aging tests of DN 50/160 pipes demonstrated that the combined effect of cyclic mechanical loading and thermal aging accelerates the rate of chemical degradation of the PUR foam, leading to a faster deterioration of the mechanical adhesion strength. The shear strength tests of naturally aged DH pipes revealed that, besides the initial pipe system characteristics and aging period, the residual shear strength of the polyurethane (PUR) foam depends on the temperature history, decreasing with the level of operating temperature and amount of fluctuation. The obtained results give a better understanding of the performance of traditional and 4GDH pipelines in operation that need to be appropriately considered in the engineering design standards of DH networks toward a more sustainable and energy-efficient infrastructure. 

Background: The clinical-stage drug candidate EBL-1003 (apramycin) represents a distinct new subclass of aminoglycoside antibiotics for the treatment of drug-resistant infections. It has demonstrated best-in-class coverage of resistant isolates, and preclinical efficacy in lung infection models. However, preclinical evidence for its utility in other disease indications has yet to be provided. Here we studied the therapeutic potential of EBL-1003 in the treatment of complicated urinary tract infection and acute pyelonephritis (cUTI/AP). Methods: A combination of data-base mining, antimicrobial susceptibility testing, time-kill experiments, and four murine infection models was used in a comprehensive assessment of the microbiological coverage and efficacy of EBL-1003 against Gram-negative uropathogens. The pharmacokinetics and renal toxicology of EBL-1003 in rats was studied to assess the therapeutic window of EBL-1003 in the treatment of cUTI/AP. Findings: EBL-1003 demonstrated broad-spectrum activity and rapid multi-log CFU reduction against a phenotypic variety of bacterial uropathogens including aminoglycoside-resistant clinical isolates. The basicity of amines in the apramycin molecule suggested a higher increase in positive charge at urinary pH when compared to gentamicin or amikacin, resulting in sustained drug uptake and bactericidal activity, and consequently in potent efficacy in mouse infection models. Renal pharmacokinetics, biomarkers for toxicity, and kidney histopathology in adult rats all indicated a significantly lower nephrotoxicity of EBL-1003 than of gentamicin. Interpretation: This study provides preclinical proof-of-concept for the efficacy of EBL-1003 in cUTI/AP. Similar efficacy but lower nephrotoxicity of EBL-1003 in comparison to gentamicin may thus translate into a higher safety margin and a wider therapeutic window in the treatment of cUTI/API. Funding: A full list of funding bodies that contributed to this study can be found in the Acknowledgements section. © 2021 The Author(s)

The influence of aeration diffuser system design on electricity usage, effluent water quality, and life-cycle cost in biological wastewater treatment was investigated. A plant-wide model was implemented, and simulations were carried out with different process configurations and aeration systems. Model-aided design of new aeration diffuser systems could significantly decrease electricity usage and life-cycle cost while at the same time avoiding negative effects on the treatment performance. The optimum distribution of diffuser systems in tanks in series was found to be influenced by process configuration, volumetric loading rate, temperature, and the internal recirculation flow rate. Compared with a conventional design approach, increasing the number of diffusers, up to a critical point, led to higher energy efficiency and lower life-cycle cost. This was despite an increasing limitation of the minimum airflow rate, leading to dissolved oxygen levels significantly exceeding control targets. Aeration systems optimized by simulations were found to, independently of process configuration, exhibit 20% lower electricity usage and 16%-18% lower life-cycle costs compared with systems designed based on a more conventional approach typically applied in practice.

Rice husk ash (RHA) having a porous sructure and a high amount of amorphous silica nanoparticles (4 nm) decorated on the surface of carbon nanosheets is a suitable and cheap candidate for the use of a grout additive. In this study, neat RHA and functionalized RHA (f-RHA) with three different loadings were successfully incorporated into the cement-bentonite based grouts by adjusting the water to cement ratio. The workability of the developed grouts having RHA-based additives was analyzed in terms of bleeding, density, flow spread, and Marsh cone time. Additionally, the thermal and prolongation of hydration performances of the cementitious grout were enriched by successful attachment of amino-silane functional groups on the RHA surface. The heat of hydration performances of RHA and functionalized RHA introduced cementitious grout composite were assessed by isothermal calorimetry tests, and especially the kinetics of hydration was increased by the addition of RHA. The presence of amino silane groups in f-RHA intensified the heat adsorption by reacting with cement constituents, and thus resulted in the retardation and reduction in the heat flow. Therefore, using an amino-silane coupling agent increased the induction period and hindered the heat of hydration compared to the reference grout. On the other hand, the incorporation of RHA and f-RHA into the cement matrix did not affect the thermal conductivity of the grouts. © 2021 by the authors. 

Recently, a growing demand for geothermal applications has led to the exploitation of energy efficiently by developing grouting materials in the borehole between pipes and the ground. Therefore, the current study developed newly formulated cementitious grouts by the integration of expanded graphite (EG)-based hybrid additives synthesized by building chemical bridges between silica particles and EG in the presence of amino functional silane coupling agents. These produced hybrid additives with controlled EG and silica ratios were utilized in grout mixtures used in borehole heat exchangers to enhance the thermal conductivity. According to the optimization study on the formulation development of grout mixtures with bentonite, silica sands, cement, and superplasticizer by adding neat EG and EG-based hybrids, the relationship between the carbon amount and water demand was found to have a significant impact on thermal conductivity. The highest thermal conductivity value of 2.656 W/mK was achieved by the incorporation of 5 wt% hybrid additive with the ratio silica/EG of 1:5 compared to the reference grout, which showed a thermal conductivity of 2.373 W/mK. Therefore, the enhancement in thermal conductivity was dependent on the increase in the EG content and also the additive loading ratio, resulting in a slight increase in the water demand.

This work evaluates the effects of newly designed graphene/silica hybrid additives on the properties of cementitious grout. In the hybrid structure, graphene nanoplatelet (GNP) obtained from waste tire was used to improve the thermal conductivity and reduce the cost and environmental impacts by using recyclable sources. Additionally, functionalized silica nanoparticles were utilized to enhance the dispersion and solubility of carbon material and thus the hydrolyzable groups of silane coupling agent were attached to the silica surface. Then, the hybridization of GNP and functionalized silica was conducted to make proper bridges and develop hybrid structures by tailoring carbon/silica ratios. Afterwards, special grout formulations were studied by incorporating these hybrid additives at different loadings. As the amount of hybrid additive incorporated into grout suspension increased from 3 to 5 wt%, water uptake increased from 660 to 725 g resulting in the reduction of thermal conductivity by 20.6%. On the other hand, as the concentration of GNP in hybrid structure increased, water demand was reduced, and thus the enhancement in thermal conductivity was improved by approximately 29% at the same loading ratios of hybrids in the prepared grout mixes. Therefore, these developed hybrid additives showed noticeable potential as a thermal enhancement material in cement-based grouts. © 2020 by the authors.

Assessment of residual products from casting in 2023 – Scania CV AB

This study is part of the project GRETA, Cast products with resource-efficient manufacturing processes and business models. The purpose of the study is to compare two different analytical methods as tools for classifying filter dust from processing of cast components. Two fractions have been analyzed and the material's impurity content evaluated based on an established method for characterization and classification based on EU legislation and EU directives that have been implemented in Swedish law through national regulations, regulations and manuals from the Swedish Environmental Protection Agency. Based on the analyzes carried out, it is shown that the method of leaching does not affect the final assessment for the material. Shake tests generally show higher levels than percolation tests, but do not affect the final assessment.

I projektet ”Rivningsobjekt – från kostnad till resurs” undersöks återbrukspotentialen i rivningsobjekt. Målet är att skapa förutsättningar för återbruk (återanvändning) av befintliga funktionella byggnadsdelar och material, som idag förstörs under rivningen. I projektets arbetspaket 6 har två pilotobjekt studerats utifrån olika aspekter som är av intresse vid ett potentiellt återbruk, tex teknisk kvalitet, demonterbarhet, hanterbarhet, materialtyper och arkitektoniskt värde. Utgångspunkten för att skapa en process som hanterar och värderar dessa aspekter är en kombination av två olika tjänster som redan idag tillhandahålls av olika aktörer: tillståndsbedömning och materialinventering i samband med rivning. Den tänkta processen är avsedd att ge indata till en urvalsmatris med olika kriterier som är viktiga för värderingen av hur man går vidare (ekonomiskt värde, värde minskade utsläpp av klimatpåverkande gaser, osv). För att testa och revidera den initiala processen för kvalitetsbedömning valdes två olika byggnader ut som pilotobjekt: Kv. Herrnhutaren i Göteborg (NCC) och Kv. Yrket i Solna (Fabege). De två rivningsobjekten kompletterar varandra med avseende på ålder, typologi, användning, byggnadsteknik och materialval. Kv. Herrnhutaren 2 är från 1800-talet och är platsbyggd, med stålstomme och bärande tegelväggar, men med väldigt lite betong. Byggnaden är ombyggd och tillbygg i flera omgångar. Användningen har varit främst affärs- och restauranglokaler, samt kontor och vindslager. Som kontrast är Kv. Yrket från 1980, till största delen byggd med Prefabelement i betong och har använts till kontor och lagerlokal.

Bygg- och rivningsavfall utgör en av de största avfallsströmmarna i Sverige, samtidigt som den återvinning som sker sträcker sig till tillämpningar med relativt låga kvalitetskrav (downcycling). Sannolikt finns potential till att återanvända rivningsavfall i tillämpningar av högre status, till exempel i ny betong eller i delar av vägkropp där kvalitetskraven är högre.

Syftet med denna rapport är att undersöka vilka regler och kvalitetskrav som finns för återvinning av den mineraliska materialfraktionen i rivningsavfall. Fokus har varit på hur denna fraktion måste vara beskaffad för att klara kvalitetskrav som ballast till vägbyggnad och ny betong.

För vägbyggnad finns ett klassificeringssystem i den europeiska standarden SS-EN 13242 (Ballast för obundna och hydrauliskt bundna material för användning i anläggningsarbeten och vägbyggen) och i Trafikverkets kravdokument TDOK 2013:0532 (Alternativa material för vägkonstruktioner). Kvalitetsklassningen sker på basis av fraktionens sammansättning med avseende på ingående materialslag, där Klass 1 (högsta klassen) i princip bara innehåller krossad betong, murverk och obunden sten, medan det i lägre klasser (i ordningen 2, 3 och 4) accepteras stigande inslag av kvalitetssänkande material (tex metaller, plast, trä, lättviktsbetong). För viss klass måste dessutom tekniska krav uppfyllas, uttryckta i termer av motstånd mot nötning eller tryckhållfasthet. TDOK 2013:0532 anger vidare vilken kvalitetsklass som krävs för olika delar av vägkropp: Klass 1 eller 2 för Förstärkningslager till belagda vägar och Bärlager till belagda vägar, minst Klass 3 för Skyddslager till belagda vägar, samt minst Klass 4 för Underbyggnad och övriga fyllningar.

För användning som betongballast krävs enligt SS 137003, vilket är den svenska tillämpningen till den europeiska betongstandarden SS-EN 206, att den återvunna ballasten karaktäriseras och klassificeras. Klassificeringen sker helt enligt standarden för betongballast (SS-EN 12620) och bygger likt systemet för användning som vägballast på innehåll och halter av ren betong och andra materialslag i den återvunna ballasten. Här är klasserna i nuläget endast två: Typ A och Typ B, där den förra är den högre (och renare) klassen. Eftersom SS-EN 12620 är harmoniserad ska återvunnen ballast till och med CE-märkas. CE-märkningen sker på samma sätt och med samma system som för primär/jungfrulig ballast, med några skillnader så som att analys av sammansättning med avseende på materialslag måste göras, samt att dokumentation och spårbarhet till rivningsprojekt måste finnas i kvalitetssystemet.

Det står helt klart att hur användbar den mineraliska fraktionen från bygg- och rivningsavfall är beror på dess renhet, dvs. hur väl man lyckats hålla isär olika avfallsfraktioner. Generellt innehåller inte den krossade betongen i sig ämnen som kan vara skadliga för människa eller miljö; dessa finns snarare i andra materialslag som kan finnas ihop med betong i rivningsavfall. Under vissa perioder har man vid byggande av hus använt material som senare visat sig orsaka hälsoproblem och förbjudits. Exempel på sådana är ”blåbetong” (lättbetong baserad på uranrik alunskiffer) och byggprodukter med asbestcement och PCB-haltiga massor. Förekomst av dessa material i en byggnad som ska rivas måste inventeras och saneras och/eller hanteras på ett säkert sätt. Gynnsamt är förstås om man redan i rivningsskedet har kunnat separera de olika komponenterna, men även ett relativt blandat avfall kan separeras och sorteras mer eller mindre effektivt i efterhand. Moderna återvinningsanläggningar använder olika tekniker för att få ut rena(re) materialfraktioner från blandat avfall. Ofta involverar dessa tekniker flera steg av krossning, torr- och våtsållning, siktning, tvättning med högtrycksvatten och pressning av slam till kaka, i vilken oftast eventuella lakbara ämnen ansamlas.

Tekniskt och miljömässigt är det fullt möjligt att återvinna rivningsavfall som ballast i ny betong och vägbyggnad, men idag sker detta alltså i mycket liten eller tom obefintlig utsträckning. Ett antal åtgärder med potential påverka i riktning att sådan återvinning ökar är:

• Ta fram nationella End-of-Waste-kriterier för rivningsavfall, till exempel enligt brittisk modell. Ökar tydlighet för alla aktörer och minskar osäkerhet i tillståndsprövningen.

• Gör livscykelperspektivet till ett starkt kriterium i offentlig upphandling, det vill säga att man får bonuspoäng utifrån detta samtidigt som det naturligtvis inte styr helt. Dessutom måste en LCA-bedömning ta hänsyn inte bara till CO2-ekvivalenter utan också andra miljöparametrar.

• Sprid och förankra bäst praxis till kommunerna/beställarna, till exempel kring vilka sekundära material som enligt forskning och beprövad erfarenhet kan användas på vilket sätt och hur, så att krav kan ställas i upphandlingar.

• Sprid kunskap och sök påverka Naturvårdsverket vad gäller riktlinjerna (och handboken) som stöd till kommuner och andra tillsynsmyndigheter, att krav bör ställas på lakbarhet och biotillgänglighet vad gäller olika ämnen, snarare än totalhalter (som kan vara hårt bundna och därmed inerta).

• Sortering för högre teknisk funktion. Om avfallsfraktionerna hålls isär och så rena som möjligt, så ökar möjlighet för återvinning avsevärt (dvs. recycling, inte downcycling), vad gäller såväl teknisk prestanda som minskad risk för miljö och människa.

The collection and recycling of packaging and life cycle assessments have traditionally been developed from a technical perspective, not including the actors in the chain. How recycling should be done depends on who you ask, and whether you look at the issue from an energy, material, legal or user perspective. FTI, the Packaging and Newspaper Collection organization is responsible for better circularity and collecting these fractions in Sweden’s municipalities. When recyclable materials end up in the wrong place, it causes problems leading to increased energy use in the life cycle. The ongoing project Tjårven, aims to reduce energy use in connection with packaging collection, as well as potential energy gains in the second stage of the packaging life cycle, by redesigning packaging collection from a user centred perspective. To do this, design interventions are developed based on observed and self-reported user behaviour, a literature review of state-of-the-art collection infrastructure and an understanding of the system developed using actor-based LCA methodology. The latter methodology is used to show the energy use in the lifecycle, including the actions of the actors in the chain. The interventions developed will be tested through a case study that will be evaluated to see if it helps to achieve more energy efficient collection infrastructure, allowing for better circularity and therefore more sustainable future lifestyles. The present article presents the first part of the project, summarizing the results from the user centred observations, literature review and initial actor-based LCA model.

World Business Council for Sustainable Development WBCSD estimates that by 2050we will need four to tenfold improvements in resource efficiency. Sweden's Agenda 2030Action Plan for 2018 - 2020 has a strategy for sustainable consumption that aims, amongother things, to increase resource efficiency and circular economy. The Swedishinnovation Agency Vinnova runs a program on circular economy from theory to practice.

This study is part of a project called “8 on society” and financed by the Swedishinnovation agency Vinnova. The aim of the project is to measure the citizens nationalfootprint and to increase the knowledge of municipalities on circular economy, the useof resources and citizens material footprints.

In this study we have chosen a method that measures the citizens consumption and itstotal impact on global resources. The method is called Lifestyle Material Footprint LMFand include, among other things, abiotic and biotic resources. A sustainable level withinplanetary boundaries lies at 8 tons per person, according to calculations from theWuppertal Institute and Aalto University.

The results of this study are based on national and municipal statistics on consumptioncombined with a resource database. The results show that Sweden's consumption-basedmaterial footprint is 32 tons per person and year: including food (20%), mobility (41%),housing (27%), and electronics / clothing / furniture (4%), leisure activities (6%). Theresults for Gothenburg and Malmö are also around 30-35 tons. Umeå stands out and isaround 40 tons. This is because heating for housing and transport are much higher innorthern Sweden. Finland shows similar figures, eg 40 tons.

Sweden's resource footprint for leisure activities is around 2,000 kg per person and year(distributed on 200 kg outdoor activities, 800 kg computer / TV, culture 100 kg, tourism900 kg). Differences between the three cities lie in tourism. Umeå residents travel more.Sweden's resource footprint for electronics, clothing and furniture is 1400 kg per personand year (800 kg electronics, 499 kg clothes and shoes, and 88 kg furniture).

The results also show that Swedish waste's related resource footprint is 5.5 tons including2.7 tons for electronics and 1 ton for mixed waste. Gothenburg and Malmö are around 3-4 tons including 1 ton for electronics and 1 ton for mixed waste.

Future scenarios and different lifestyles have been discussed (local, digital, circular) andcalculations of scenarios around division and circularity show that Sweden's resourcefootprint fall below 8 tons, but only if sharing initiatives increase from 10% to 20%, andcircularity increases to 40%.

The results also indicate that there is an opportunity to integrate resource footprint intostrategy and action plans in the three cities. Future prospects for using resource footprintas indicator look good. Within the new OECD study and the follow-up of circulareconomics, several new indicators have been proposed, including a resource footprint.To achieve a sustainable society and a circular economy, it also needs a resource targetkg / person for example in IT and electronics!

The construction sector is a major contributor to global warming. One solution to the challenge is to develop new sustainable material alternatives. The BioZEment concept employs bio-catalytic dissolution and precipitation of calcium carbonate as a novel alternative to concrete. In this report, the reduction in global warming potential of using BioZEment is assessed with a building stock model, where the use of conventional concrete is compared to the use of BioZEment in Norwegian dwellings until 2100. The assessment is conducted with the assumption that BioZEment has expected material properties and is gradually penetrating the building stock until it reaches a full implementation by 2050.

Results indicate that the use of BioZEment has a higher potential of reducing global warming potential than conventional concrete, regardless of the development of the cement industry. BioZEment could decrease cumulative greenhouse gas emissions with ca 15 % by 2100 compared to using conventional concrete with a conservative development and slightly less if compared to using concrete with an optimistic development (including among other initiatives breakthrough technologies like carbon capture and storage, and carbon capture and utilization).

Results also indicate that, while BioZEment is not fully implemented in the entire building stock, using the optimistic development concrete instead of conservative concrete provides the lowest cumulative emissions by 2100. That means that including several migration strategies at the same time will reduce emissions further than taking one single action.

The building stock model provides interesting indications about the potential of BioZEment, which can guide further development. If Norway is to meet its ambitious goals of emission reductions and climate neutrality, it is important to design thought through and robust strategies for the construction sector.

Test facility for prefabricated storm water treatment devices.

In Sweden, stormwater management has usually implied release of stormwater into the nearest recipient with no concern for either the levels of contaminants in the water or to the sensitivity of the recipient. The demand for sustainable solutions has increased along with more knowledge concerning stormwater toxicity and the harmful effects it can have on the environment in the long term. New technical solutions for stormwater treatment are continuously being presented on the market, however, independent third-party tests have rarely been conducted to verify the function of these solutions. To choose the right technology for a specific application while ensuring the function over an extended period of time, can therefore be complex task for customers. Likewise, the variety of requirements on treatment efficiency makes in challenging for technology suppliers as there is currently no possibility of independent testing of stormwater treatment devices in Sweden to verify this. As a step towards a more sustainable stormwater management, RISE developed a proposal for a national standard for prefabricated treatment devices within a Vinnova-funded project in 2019. Subsequently, the Swedish Environmental Protection Agency has financed three follow-up projects where this is the latter of the three. The aim for this project has been to answer the remaining questions and create sufficient knowledge to be able to build the test bed in a next step. During the project, a lot of valuable information has been gathered through interviews, dialogues, a workshop and a survey with actors from both the customer side and the supplier side in Sweden and internationally. The design of the test bed has emerged and is based on the proposed standard and the input that has come along the project. A business model has been developed, where different alternatives have been studied. Based on this, ways forward have been discussed. The conclusions of the project can be summarized by the fact that the need for a clearer definition of requirements for stormwater quality and a national standard for third-party tests of stormwater treatment devices is great both from customers and technology suppliers. Based on the dialogues conducted with international actors, it has emerged that several countries (e.g., Germany and the UK) have come further than Sweden in this area and there is much to be gained from continuing the dialogue and cooperate further on these issues. The business model shows that a mobile facility is preferable, as the area of use can then be broadened and revenues for rent can supplement income from standardized tests. However, this means that only smaller facilities can be evaluated in the facility, which several technology providers have been critical of. One possibility that have been discussed within the project is that larger facilities could be evaluated according to a Swedish standard at an established test bed abroad. For standardized tests, the cost estimate is SEK 200,000 towards the customer, to also get coverage for inactive periods. If the investment cost of the test bed can be financed in another way, for example through national grants, depreciation costs are reduced by approximately SEK 10,000 / week, which contributes to reduced costs per test and rental period. This would give more technology providers the opportunity to perform tests, as well as enable an expanded knowledge building, which would benefit the industry as a whole.

The IVAR plant combines post-sorting of residual waste with recycling of some of the plastic waste fractions. At the plant five different fraction of plastics, four fractions of paper, bio- waste, glass, and metal packaging are separated. In total 83.2 % by weight of the incoming waste is sent to energy recovery (WtE) and 16.8 wt% is recovered for material recycling. It is estimated that approx. 82 wt% of the plastic in the waste is separated. Today they also have spare capacity to receive more waste for sorting, however the costs are relatively high and the economic incentive from the sales of the sorted materials are not enough. The largest renumeration comes from the Norwegian producer responsibility schemes for sorting plastic, metal packaging and beverage cartons.

The bottle neck of the recycling industry with the current state of the art is the quality of the plastic waste. Only part of the plastic waste is suitable for recycling (have a market for the recycled material). New solutions for both plastic sorting and recycling is needed to increase the impact and circularity from the recycling. It will be crucial to find solutions for low quality and mixed plastic materials. There also need to be measures put in place to create a market pull for the recycled material.

While all the recycled material generates positive climate effects, the recycled plastic generates double gains. It reduces the emissions for the production of virgin plastics and at the same time it reduces the direct fossil CO2 emissions generated by the WtE plant. Considering upcoming regulations in Norway, with increased CO2 taxes, the investments for more residual sorting plants in Norway is likely to increase.

Benchmarking has been a useful tool for unbiased comparison of control strategies in wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) in terms of effluent quality, operational cost and risk of suffering microbiology-related total suspended solids (TSS) separation problems. This chapter presents the status of extending the original Benchmark Simulation Model No 2 (BSM2) towards including greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. A mathematical approach based on a set of comprehensive models that estimate all potential on-site and off-site sources of COinf2/inf, CHinf4/inf and Ninf2/infO is presented and discussed in detail. Based upon the assumptions built into the model structures, simulation results highlight the potential undesirable effects on increased GHG emissions when carrying out local energy optimization in the activated sludge section and/or energy recovery in the anaerobic digester. Although off-site COinf2/inf emissions may decrease in such scenarios due to either lower aeration energy requirement or higher heat and electricity production, these effects may be counterbalanced by increased Ninf2/infO emissions, especially since Ninf2/infO has a 300-fold stronger greenhouse effect than COinf2/inf. The reported results emphasize the importance of using integrated approaches when comparing and evaluating (plant-wide) control strategies in WWTPs for more informed operational decision-making. 

This report is a result of the SUSPIPE project. Within SUSPIPE, the water and sewage industry's manufacturers, suppliers and customers collaborate. In this sub-project, the possibilities for better products and methodology for electrofusion of large-dimension polyethylene pipes have been investigated through interviews, measurements, and simulations. When building new water and sewage pipe networks of polyethylene pipes, the network owners should demand that the work complies with “AMA Anläggning 20,” that the welders have training with an EWF certificate and that procedure testing is carried out before the construction starts. Furthermore, they should have inspectors present at the construction sites. The members of INSTA-CERT should review the certification regulations regarding requirements for ovality and indirect methods for measurements of residual internal stresses in polyethylene pipes for water and sewage. To achieve good quality joints in polyethylene pipes, rotating scraping tools, fixing tools and rounding clamps must be used. Furthermore, the trenches must be wide and long enough for fitting equipment and personnel and for adjusting the positions of the pipe ends.  

This report is a result of the SUSPIPE project. Within SUSPIPE the water and sewage industry's manufacturers, suppliers and customers collaborate. In this sub-project, solutions for connecting concrete manholes to structured wall pipes in plastic have been investigated. The project has also analysed conditions in the field, interviewed customers, contractors and inspectors and tried to understand the origin and cause of the perceived problems with leaking joints. Different types of joints between concrete manholes and plastic pipes have been identified. The new edition of “AMA Anläggning 20” requires seals to be used at the joints, but there is always some lag to implement new editions in procurements. To have consistent requirements for seals, supplementary wording from this report should be introduced in “AMA Anläggning” under PB, PC and PD. In this report, efforts have also been made to formulate requirements for materials and tightness testing, which customers can use in procurements or project instructions to improve the quality of their joints. However, further work will be required to link these to appropriate standards at the system level. The requirements for vulcanized rubber and, also thermoplastic elastomers in applicable standards need to be tightened, but this is a long-term process. A proposal from a previous project is adopted in this report, which is to perform relaxation tests for longer time periods. The report's proposal for requirements for verification of joint seals is based on product standards for concrete manholes and unpressurized plastic pipes, as well as a general standard for unpressurized piping systems. However, there is no standard or similar where these requirements can be set. Optionally, a voluntary labelling could be applied. Plastic pipes are marked in the Nordic countries with Nordic Poly Mark and for some other products, P-marking has been introduced through SP / RISE. Furthermore, the report states six success factors for water tight unpressurised piping systems, which include favourable contractor conditions, that accuracy in pipe laying is applied, that correct joint seals are used, that the supplier's instructions are followed, that on-site inspections are carried out and that leakage tests are carried out. 

Aiming at better understanding the ageing behaviour of cellulose composites, the accelerated thermo-oxidative ageing of polyethylene reinforced with two types of wood-based cellulose fibres was studied. Materials were prepared by extrusion mixing of either un-stabilized or stabilized polyethylene reinforced with 5 and 20 vol % cellulose content. The materials were extruded into strips and then aged at 90°C in circulating air. The effect of accelerated ageing up to 31 days was assessed by oxidation induction time and mechanical properties in tension. The results indicated that the added cellulose fibres did not increase the degradation of the composites during this ageing. Reinforcement with 20 % cellulose fibre having a 28 % lignin content together with 0.005 % Irganox 1010 antioxidant resulted in a remarkable improvement in the resistance against accelerated thermo-oxidation, compared to the pure polyethylene with added antioxidant. The findings of increased lifetime of LDPE by addition of wood-based reinforcement is of great interest, since the durability aspect is crucial to understand and predict before usage in commercial applications and especially as structural composites.

Just nu är vi inne på en resa mot ett resurseffektivare samhälle, som bygger på cirkulär ekonomi. I en sådan ekonomi stannar de råvaror och tillgångar vi tar ut från naturen (tex sten och kalksten till ballast och cement, och malm till stål) i samhällets materialkretslopp och slösas inte bort genom att tex läggas på deponi. I en cirkulär ekonomi undviker vi så långt som möjligt att avfall uppstår, men när något faktiskt måste kasseras så ska det återvinnas och ännu hellre återanvändas. Mål om ökad återvinning och återanvändning finns på såväl EU-nivå som nationell nivå inom de flesta sektorer och i och med EU:s Nya Gröna Giv, så har dessa strävande fått ökad tyngd. Samtidigt måste vi minska utsläppen av gaser som spär på växthuseffekten och den globala uppvärmningen, något som också i regel gynnas av ett mer resurseffektivt samhälle. Inom byggnadssektorn uppstår stora mängder avfall varje år när byggnader och konstruktioner rivs (i Sverige minst 10 miljoner ton mineraliskt rivningsavfall varje år), men fortfarande är såväl återvinnings- som återanvändningsgraden av dessa mycket låg. Sällan beror detta på att inte tekniken finns eller att det vi vill återvinna eller återanvända inte klarar de tekniska krav som finns för möjliga användningar, utan snarare på andra faktorer, som otydligheter regelverk och riktlinjer kring hur och när alternativa material får och kan användas och att offentliga beställare inte känner till vad som är möjligt att kräva (se RE:Source-rapport Ökad resurseffektiv användning av sekundära råmaterial i konstruktioner; van Praagh, Brander och Olsson, 2020). I EU-projektet RE4 samverkade forskningsutförare, arkitekter och teknikkonsultbolag med företag inom återvinning, Prefabbetong och robotteknik, kring återvinning av rivningsavfall som ballast i olika typer av betong (www.re4.eu). Olika betongrecept togs fram där upp till 90% av ballasten i betongen ersattes med återvunnet rivningsavfall och där betongen förstås bibehöll den tekniska prestanda som Prefabföretaget behövde. Finalen i RE4 var byggandet av två demohus, ett utanför Belfast och ett i Madrid, med Prefabelement tillverkade med rivningsavfall. LCA som utfördes visade på besparingar i det totala resursutnyttjandet, men däremot påverkar återvinningen av rivningsavfall som ballast i ny betong i regel inte utsläpp av växthusgaser, eftersom det fortfarande krävs cement för att tillverka ny betong. Däremot kan såväl användande av nya naturresurser som klimatutsläpp minska genom återanvändning av hela betongdelar.

Concrete is the primary building material worldwide with a substantial impact on the built environment sustainability. Hence, it is necessary to assess concrete's combined functionality, economic and environmental impact. In this paper, two concrete sustainability assessment frameworks, MARS-SC and CONCRETop, were studied. Building on the identified gaps, a new framework, ECO2 was developed. ECO2 is a multi-criteria decision analysis framework that accounts for carbon sequestration of concrete, impact allocation of raw materials, and the impact from the use and end-of-life phases. Hence, it could be used to optimize the proportions of a concrete mix based on a user-defined sustainability objective. A case study concluded that, due to the whole life cycle scope, the environmental impact calculated through ECO2 is 20% higher than that by MARS-SC and CONCRETop. In case of reinforced concrete, where service life requirements are different, the ranking of the alternatives according to ECO2 will significantly change comparatively.

The density and mechanical properties were determined on water saturated specimens from boreholesKFM01A, KFM08A, KFM11A, KFR102A and KFR104 in the Forsmark site investigation area. Therock types in the selected sections were amphibolite (102017) and metavolcanic rock (103076). Somespecimens had a more or less foliated rock structure. The cores were sampled from a depth rangingbetween 196–901 m.The specimens were water saturated using tap water and all subsequent measurements wereconducted at this moisture condition. The density was determined on 30 specimens. The testingended with 20 indirect tensile tests yielding the indirect tensile strength and 10 uniaxial compressiontests including the post-peak response yielded the Young’s modulus, Poisson’s ratio and the uniaxialcompressive strength.Some variation of rock material along the short cores could be seen, which is reflected in themeasured data. The density at a water saturated condition was 2892–3067 kg/m3 for amphibolite, and2697–2763 kg/m3 for metavolcanic rock.The indirect tensile tests were conducted such that every specimen with visible foliation was testedwith the diametrical compression across the foliation planes, with higher values for the indirecttensile strength on the specimens. The strength variation in the amphibolite was large. The indirecttensile strength was 10.8–21.4 MPa for amphibolite and 16.9–20.7 MPa for metavolcanic rock. Twoof the amphibolite specimens had a deviating lower strength, indirect tensile strength 5.7 MParespectively 5.8 MPa, with a ductile failure. Those specimens had a high content of mica.The Young’s modulus obtained from the uniaxial compression tests was 88.6–114.5 GPa foramphibolite and 68.2–89.1 GPa for metavolcanic rock and the Poisson’s ratio was 0.339–0.386 foramphibolite and 0.236–0.313 for metavolcanic rock. The peak values of the axial compressive stresswere in the range 213.1–333.7 MPa for amphibolite and 104.1–283.1 MPa for metavolcanic rock.One of the amphibolite specimens had a deviating lower strength and a ductile failure with Young’smodulus 41.2 GPa, Poisson’s ratio 0.500 and peak axial compressive stress of 44.5 MPa. Thatspecimen had a high content of mica. 

 A one-day Nordic Concrete Research workshop on “Accelerated freeze-thaw testing of concrete” attracted approx. 30 participants. The workshop included presentations on various aspects, such as observed frost damage in the field and the importance of the temperature curve during testing as well as other interactions with the surroundings of the concrete. The workshop also included examples of recent research, which can improve our knowledge about the frost damage mechanism and therefore provide input to improving the standardised test methods. The present paper is a summary of the nine presentations and the discussion arising from the presentations.

I detta projekt kartläggs de förändringar i provkroppar av betong med tillsats av främst slagg och flygaska som har uppkommit efter fyra vintersäsongers exponering vid RV40 i Borås. Dessa förändringar jämförs med resultat från laboratorieprovningar på provkroppar härdade på olika sätt i laboratoriet av samma betongblandningar utförda eller påbörjade inom de första 91 dygnen från gjutning. Vissa andra egenskaper har också studerats i avsikt att kasta ljus på den yttre eller inre nedbrytning som skett i fält.

De provkroppar som undersökts tillverkades inom BBT-projektet 2013:22 "Saltfrost-provningsmetodens tillämplighet på betong innehållande slagg, flygaska och kalkstensfiller" vilket redovisats i [1]. Det främsta syftet med det projektet var att undersöka om salt-frostprovningsmetoden i SS 137244 [2] ("slab method" i CEN TS 12390-9 [3]) ger resultat som motsvarar den nedbrytning som erhålls vid verklig salt-frostexponering för blandningar med tillsatsmaterial som slagg och flygaska, eller om modifieringar av metoden krävs.

I detta projekt har samtliga provkroppar (fyra per vardera av de 14 blandningarna) som fältexponerats vägts och mätts. Dynamisk E-modul beräknad utifrån uppmätt egenfrekvens och ultraljud har också registrerats på dessa. Tre av de fyra provkropparna har därefter återförts till RV40 för framtida undersökningar, medan en provkropp per blandning har undersökts närmare vad gäller karbonatiseringsdjup, kloridinträngning, förekomst av mikrosprickor, förändringar i ytan samt fördelning av vissa grundämnen i provkropparna. Resultaten har jämförts med de laboratorieresultat som erhölls inom BBT-projektet 2013:22 och med fältresultat efter fyra år från ett annat projekt med liknande inriktning [4].

Mätresultaten visar att fyra års exponering i en miljö med saltning inte är tillräcklig tid för att kunna utläsa en betongs motstånd mot salt-frostavflagning genom att registrera ändring i massa eller volym hos provkroppar. Under de första åren i en fuktig miljö sker en fortskridande hydratisering som binder ytterligare vatten kemiskt, och ökar provkroppens densitet. Detta gäller i synnerhet för betongblandningar med flygaska och viss mån även betong med slagg som har en långsammare reaktionshastighet och strukturutveckling initialt än vad en ren portlandcementbetong har. Det är inte förrän efter åtminstone ett års exponering, då hydratiseringen och hållfasthetsutvecklingen avstannat helt eller nästan, som förändringar i vikt eller massa kan börja relateras till yttre nedbrytning. Efter fyra års exponering av provkropparna har det heller inte skett någon klart märkbar förändring av den exponerade ytan, inte ens hos de betongblandningar som inte innehåller tillsatt luft.

De fortgående reaktionerna påverkar även den uppmätta egenfrekvensen och transmissionstiden, som återspeglar förändringar i dynamisk E-modul och den inre nedbrytningen. När det gäller den inre nedbrytningen mätt genom registrering av egenfrekvens (RDMFF) fås dock betydligt mer utslagsgivande resultat efter fyra år i fält än vad registrering av massa och volym ger. Provkroppar från två blandningar uppvisar en betydande minskning, ner till c:a 60 % av ursprunglig E-modul: en med 20% flygaska utan luftporbildare (A20FU) och en med 35% slagg och luftporbildare (R35S). A20FU uppvisade också stark avflagning då betongblandningarna provades enligt SS 137244 [2], medan R35S då inte visade några tecken på nedbrytning. Ett par andra blandningar, en med 20 % slagg utan luftporbildare och en med 65 % slagg med luftporbildare visade en klar tendens till inre nedbrytning både i fältförsöket och vid salt-frostprovningen. För vissa blandningar uppvisar en av de fyra provkropparna betydande nedbrytning mätt med egenfrekvens efter fyra år, men inte de övriga tre, alla med minst 20 % flygaska eller slagg. Av dessa var det bara en som visade tendens till nedbrytning vid den initiala salt-frostprovningen.

Mätning av inre nedbrytning gjordes dels med registrering av egenfrekvens dels med registrering av transmissionstid (UPTT), och resultaten korrelerar ganska väl med varandra, med ett par undantag. När det gäller den blandning (R35S), som vid egenfrekvensmätningen uppvisade stor nedbrytning, så återspeglas inte det i UPTT-värdena. Mätvärdet för R65S med UPTT indikerar en större nedbrytning än mätvärdet med egenfrekvens.

Den mikroskopiska undersökning visade att i provet utan luftporbildare som visade stor inre nedbrytning (A20FU) var sprickfrekvensen hög, och sprickorna som utgick från kanten av ballastkornen vek av ut i cementpastan och hade en betydande längd (40-50 mm) och bredd. I vissa fall har det bildats en luftspalt mellan ballastkorn och cementpasta. I övriga prover förekom det fina mikrosprickor, främst vid kanten av ballastkornen, som inte bedömdes påverka betongens egenskaper nämnvärt.

I proverna med slagg och luftporbildare som också uppvisar en klart märkbar inre nedbrytning (R35S och R65S), noteras också en ganska hög sprickfrekvens. Men mer slående är att de har en genomgående dålig fördelning av luftporerna, vilka tenderar att ansamlas runt ballastkorn. Detta är troligtvis en avgörande faktor för det dåliga motståndet mot inre nedbrytning. Detta skulle kunna bero på ett olämpligt val av luftporbildare för den aktuella bindemedelssammansättningen (CEM I 52,5 R och 35 respektive 65 % slagg). Provet med CEM I 42,5N-SR3 LA/MH och 35% slagg (A35S) uppvisar inte samma inre nedbrytning. Denna har dock inte analyserats med mikroskopi. Generellt konstaterades i [1] att luftporbildare inte har samma positiva inverkan på frostresistensen när större mängder slagg ingår som i blandningar utan slagg. I blandningar med flygaska är de däremot av stor vikt för frostbeständigheten.

I proverna med flygaska noterades vid den mikroskopiska analysen reaktionsprodukter, troligtvis ettringit, i luftporerna vilket kan ha bidragit till en sämre frostbeständigheten genom att luftporernas funktion försämras. Detta kan påverka både den inre frostbeständigheten och salt-frostavflagningen. Ettringit som bildas när betongen har hårdnat kan också ge upphov till skador p.g.a. svällning vid försenad ettringitbildning, se till exempel avsnitt 2.7.2 i [5].

Kloridprofiler från den sågade överytan och inåt i fältprovkropparna togs fram med två olika metoder. På några provkroppar användes titrering och på några användes μ-XRF. Titreringen gjordes ner till 25 mm djup, medan μ-XRF gav profilen ner till 60 mm djup.

När flygaska används fås en större kloridinträngning efter 4–5 års exponering vid RV40 i skiktet ner till ca 20 mm djup, och ju högre andel flygaska desto längre in från ytan återfinns den punkt där halten klorid är som störst. Däremot blir kloridhalten lägre längre in i provkroppen med flygaska än utan.

Med slagg i blandningen minskar kloridinträngningen. I detta projekt är motståndet mot kloridinträngning när ett CEM I 52,5 R ("R-cement") används som störst med 35 % slagg och när ett CEM I 42,5 N SR3/LA/MH ("A-cement") används med 20 % slagg. I blandningen med R-cement och 65% slagg (R65S) har en betydligt större kloridinträngning och fluktuerande kloridprofil uppmätts än i blandningen med 35 % slagg (R35S). Detta kan bero på den mycket ojämna och dåliga luftporfördelningen i denna provkropp, med ansamling av luftporer vid ballastkorn, vilket kan öka permeabiliteten för klorider.

En viktig frågeställning i BBT-projektet 2013:22 [1] var att kartlägga karbonatiseringens inverkan på salt-frostbeständigheten och eventuellt modifiera den använda salt-frostprovningsmetoden så att denna inverkan beaktades. I det projektet accelererades karbonatiseringen därför dels genom att utsätta provytan för 1 % CO2 en vecka innan frysprovningen startades, och dels genom att låta provytan exponeras för 65% RF och normal laboratorieluft under tre månader innan frysprovningen. Genom mätning av karbonatiseringsdjupet på fältproverna konstaterades att för att simulera 4-5 års naturlig karbonatisering i vägmiljö, med resultat på säker sida, borde provkropparna sågas vid c:a 60 dygn och därefter utsättas för 1 % CO2. Att utsätta provkropparna för koldioxid vi 21 dygns ålder ger större karbonatiseringsdjup än efter 4 -5 års fältexponering. Dock måste man ha i åtanke att 4–5 år är en kort tid i förhållande till en betongkonstruktions livslängd som kan vara upp till 120 år eller längre. Vilken koldioxidexponering som bäst motsvarar karbonatiseringen på lång sikt, och i vilken mån det är relevant för frostbeständigheten kommer att framgå av framtida undersökningar av de fältexponerade provkropparna.

Karbonatiseringsdjupet ökade ju högre andel av portlandcementklinkern som ersattes med flygaska eller slagg, proportionellt sett mest med flygaska. Det mer finkorniga R-cementet gav något mindre karbonatiseringsdjup A-cementet. Tillsättning av luftporbildare ger något högre karbonatiseringsdjup än utan.

Angreppet på en betongyta vid en trafikerad väg består inte bara av temperatur-variationer och exponering för klorider. Där ingår också omväxlande perioder med vatten i form av regn, spolning eller skvätt från vägbana och torra perioder vilket kan leda till urlakning av lättlösliga ämnen i betongytan.

Halten av alkalierna natrium och kalium är starkt reducerad i ytskiktet, och en gradient har uppstått i provkroppen. Det natrium som tillförs genom saltning ersätter inte de alkalier som fanns i cementet från början och som lakats ut i de yttersta millimetrarna.

Någon urlakning av kalcium verkar däremot inte ha uppstått efter 4–5 års exponering.

I blandningarna med flygaska visas tecken på urlakning av aluminium (Al), och i blandningarna med 65 % slagg har magnesium (Mg) urlakats. Samtidigt har i dessa blandningar svavel urlakats, vilket tyder på att det är sulfater innehållande Al och Mg som urlakats.

It has been observed that storage of specimens with chloride gradients before determining the chloride profile can lead to changes in the shape of the chloride profile. An experimental study to quantify the influence of the duration of the storage period and the storage temperature has been carried out. It comprised three storage periods (7, 28 and 91 days) and two storage temperatures (+ 5 °C and + 20 °C). The specimens had previously been immersed in a 15% NaCl solution for 56 days and were sealed in plastics during storage. The results show that a temperature of + 5 °C diminishes the rate of redistribution considerably, compared to a storage carried out at + 20 °C, and the longer the storage period is, the more redistribution will take place. It is also shown that it is of importance to assure that the sealing of the specimens during storage is capable of maintaining the relative humidity at the surface, so that local redistribution of chlorides close to the surface will not take place. © 2021, The Author(s).

This RISE report is a short version of SVU report 2022:5 “Klimatförbättrad betong för dricksvattenanläggningar” (Low carbon concrete for drinking water infrastructure). The purpose of the project was to clarify if the carbon footprint of concrete for drinking water infrastructure can be lowered by replacing Portland cement with supplementary cementitious materials (SCM) accepted for use in concrete without influencing the quality of the drinking water negatively with regard to trace substances and PAH. In addition to reviewing the literature, leaching tests and LCA analyses were conducted on thirteen concretes mixes with varying binder compositions. The results show that it is possible to replace up to 50 % of the cement with the SCMs, ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBS), silica fume and fly ash. All this may be GGBS and up to 35 % fly ash may be used. This is valid under condition that a drinking water facility which in its entirety is new drinking goes through a tuning period of some days up to a week during which the water quality is monitored before water is delivered to clients. Leaching of some substances is somewhat increased and others are decreased by the replacement of the cement, however the changes are so small that the content in the drinking water in a real facility is only marginally influenced. Which type of binder to use should be decided based on other these materials influence on other concrete properties, for instance on the strength development. The decrease of the carbon footprint is roughly proportional to the cement replacement ratio.

Most building design codes distinguish structural reliability levels in terms of failure consequences, for which they normally define consequence classes based on building type and use. Although readily applicable in everyday practice, that approach may entail adopting inconsistent safety requirements. Such a significant drawback could be minimised by establishing separate reliability levels for key members on the grounds of the potential consequences of their collapse. Further to those concerns, this paper proposes a series of consequence classes determined in keeping with the number of persons at risk in a given collapse scenario and the extent of the respective damage. Consequence class-related models for predicting loss of life are derived from statistical assessments of data on over 150 collapsed buildings. The models developed estimate the number of fatalities and conditional probability of death of building users under given collapse circumstances. In addition to their utility in establishing target reliability values, these models can be applied in risk analysis of specific building structures, especially where the potential consequences of failure are high. 

Nanoplastics (NPs), which we define in this paper as solid plastic particles with the size <1 μm, unintentionally produced from the degradation and fragmentation of larger plastic objects are probably the least known area of plastic litter but are suspected to pose the greatest risk to the environment. However, no NPs have been detected in natural environments to date. This review attempts to provide a critical overview from the polymer science perspective of the relevant scientific literature, which could facilitate finding secondary NPs in natural environments. The information on secondary NPs has been scarce due to the big challenges in sampling, separation, and detection of these nanoscale particles. This review highlights the most important challenges and obstacles and discusses the mechanisms of generation of secondary NPs. It provides also a critical overview on modern instrumentation, newly developed workflows, promising techniques for sampling and sample preparation, and detection methods including spectroscopies (Raman and FT-IR), microscopies (SEM and TEM) and mass spectrometry (GC–MS and ToF–SIMS). We conclude that finding NPs in natural environments is plausible yet uncertain, which drives towards the development of a methodology for collection, separation and identification of NPs in environmental matrices along with a thorough evaluation of the process of formation of secondary NPs, their fate and effects on living organisms and the environment. To find nanoplastics in natural environments it is important to know the process of their formation, their fate, and experimental constraints.

In this study, a laboratory-scale prototype of a borehole field has been designed and built to assess various innovative grouting products in a fully controlled environment. Three novel grout formulations are developed and evaluated: enhanced grout, a mixture of enhanced grout and microencapsulated phase change material, and a mixture of enhanced grout and shape stabilized phase change material. The objective is to evaluate the enhancement in their thermal properties (i.e., thermal conductivity and thermal energy storage capacity) compared to those using a commercial reference grout. Besides, three-dimensional numerical modeling is performed to provide a better understanding of the heat transfer and phase transition inside and outside the grout columns and to study the capability of the developed grouts to be used in a borehole heat exchanger or as borehole thermal energy storage system. To the best of the authors' knowledge, there have been just a few numerical studies on using phase change materials inside borehole heat exchangers to assess thermal energy storage applications. The experimental and numerical results showed much higher efficiency of the grout developed with a high thermal conductivity than the reference grout in terms of heat transfer in both the grout column and the surrounding sand. Furthermore, the results indicated the noticeable influence of the microencapsulated phase change material's presence in the grout formulation in terms of heat absorption/storage during the phase transition (from solid to liquid). However, it is concluded that reengineering shape stabilized phase change material should be conducted to make it more appropriate for thermal energy storage applications.

Multidisciplinary approach is used to evaluate concrete with recycled concrete aggregates (RCA) from technical, environmental impacts and product circularity perspectives. Two RCA replacements investigated, RAC50: fine aggregates; RAC100: both coarse, fine aggregates. Reference, recycled concretes have same cement content, similar workability and compressive strength requirement, proven experimentally. RCA is sourced from pre-fab element discards of a Swedish plant, the logistical alternatives requiring environmental impact analysis. Alternatives are RCA crushing at plant and crushing at a different location including transportation. LCA shows transportation is second largest contributor after cement in all impact categories. RAC alternatives show lower total impact than reference concrete due to RCA replacement. A circularity index for concrete based on economic value of recirculated aggregates; supplements LCA for sustainability reporting. Circularity index results: RAC100 > RAC50 > RC. Combining circularity index with LCA helps optimize recycling process with regard to amount of recycled material and logistics respectively. © 2022 The Author(s).

Effective decrease of water use in households 

This is the final report of a preparatory project which has aimed to identify and characterize methods which can be used to achieve a reduced usage of water for households in Sweden. This is so that the methods that give the most effect can be implemented. The project has also aimed to produce conditions for an implementation project so that methods can be tested and evaluated in a practical manner. The project’s long term goal is to create a system transfer and to reduce the water usage in Swedish households from 140 to 100 liters per person and per day. Getting individuals to change their behavior and reduce their water use is complex as several factors affect their water use today and the conditions for reducing water use. Several studies have reported differences between households with the highest and lowest consumption of water by a factor of four. The individual differences in water use per person can be equally as large. The variations in water use can be explained by several factors, such as the size of household, type of residence and the efficiency of the appliances. Besides these factors, there are also large variations in water related behaviors such as routines for showering and doing dishes. To identify methods with potential to make water use for households in Sweden more efficient, an oversight of projects, initiatives and previous research have been carried out with focus towards: • Decreased water usage on a national level • Decreased water usage on an international level • Decreased energy and water consumption through behavior change • Changes in behavior for citizens with regards to a sustainable usage of resources This analysis has landed in four methods to affect the households water use, which are: • Policy and legislation • Financial incentives • Communication • Technical solutions There is limited experience regarding the water saving potential that the different methods, and combinations of them, have in Sweden. The study shows that the method which is mainly used in Sweden is different forms of communication, even though communication seemingly has a limited effect. International studies show that water saving measures, such as water effective techniques and requirements for measuring water consumption, lead to a good outcome. For future studies we suggest that communication is combined with other methods and that more innovative methods are tested in situations that are as close to realistic situations as possible. This is important to understand what the effects will be in practice, and what the consequences will be for other important implementation parameters such as for example cost of implementation and environmental sustainability. We also see an obstacle in the lack of data that show the water use in households. In this project we have created conditions to test and evaluate solutions by using a digital water gauge with a high level of collection frequency. The water gauge is installed in a chosen villa area in the municipality of Kungsbacka.

KAVA mapping of water use.

There is limited data on how much drinking water is used for different purposes and how water use varies over time in relation to various factors such as temperature and precipitation. This lack of knowledge means that we don’t know where the water goes for example on hot days when usage increases significantly, which creates a load on raw water sources, drinking water treatment and/or drinking water distribution systems. This project has analyzed water consumption data from a total of seven participating water utilities to create an understanding of how consumers contribute to flow peaks. Data has been collected from water treatment plants, pumping stations and water meters from various consumer groups such as households and businesses together with weather data. The results show, among other things, that water use, in most cases, rises when the temperature (maximum daily temperature) rises, that villas with a pool have a higher water use than villas without a pool during the second quarter of the year. Results also shows that and that flow peaks occur when many people use a little more water than when a few people use a lot more water, and that flow peaks are driven by local conditions as they usually do not occur simultaneously for drinking water plants in different locations. As more water meters with stationary readings are replaced with digital water meters, new opportunities are created to analyze water usage data. The new data base also provides opportunities to inform and visualize water use for consumers and give them direct feedback when they change their behavior pattern. The most important experience that is highlighted regarding communication of sustainable water use is to stick to a predetermined communication plan and to convey a clear and well-thought-out why consumers should reduce their water use. We hope that this project will create a better understanding of how and when flow peaks occur and with that information water utilities can better avoid flow peaks, irrigation bans and events with depressurized distribution networks from occurring.

The paper describes the preparation and characterization of rigid polyurethane-polyisocyanurate (PUR-PIR) foams obtained with biopolyol synthesized in the process of liquefaction of biomass from the Baltic Sea. The obtained foams differed in the content of biopolyol in polyol mixture (0-30 wt%) and the isocyanate index (I_ISO = 200, 250, and 300). The prepared foams were characterized in terms of processing parameters (processing times, synthesis temperature), physical (sol fraction content, apparent density) and chemical structure (Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy), microstructure (computer microtomography), as well as mechanical (compressive strength, dynamic mechanical analysis), and thermal properties (thermogravimetric analysis, thermal conductivity coefficient). The influence of biopolyol and I_ISO content on the above properties was determined. The addition of up to 30 wt% of biopolyol increased the reactivity of the polyol mixture, and the obtained foams showed enhanced mechanical, thermal, and insulating properties compared to foams prepared solely with petrochemical polyol. The addition of up to 30 wt% of biopolyol did not significantly affect the chemical structure and average cell size. With the increase in I_ISO, a slight decrease in processing times and mechanical properties was observed. As expected, foams with higher I_ISO exhibited a higher relative concentration of polyisocyanurate groups in their chemical structure, which was confirmed using principal component analysis (PCA).

In this paper, novel rigid polyurethane foams modified with Baltic Sea biomass were compared with traditional petro-based polyurethane foam as reference sample. A special attention was focused on complex studies of microstructure, which was visualized and measured in 3D with high-resolution microcomputed tomography (microCT) and, as commonly applied for this purpose, scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The impact of pore volume, area, shape and orientation on appearance density and thermal insulation properties of polyurethane foams was determined. The results presented in the paper confirm that microcomputed tomography is a useful tool for relatively quick estimation of polyurethane foams’ microstructure, what is crucial especially in the case of thermal insulation materials. © 2020 by the authors. 

The report contains a presentation of different sustainability goals that the water and wastewater sector needs to consider. Water utilities’ work in Sweden with sustainability index (HBI) and its relation to the SDGs is shown. HBI is covering several of the SDGs but the water and wastewater sector can both deepen and broaden its sustainability work; suggestions how are given in the report.