This study investigated manure loads in outdoor paddocks for laying hens and the capacity of two phosphorus (P) retaining materials for reducing leaching from manure in areas with high hen density. Inventories on two commercial farms during 2 years (2017 and 2018) of the impact of hens (groups of 3000 hens) on vegetation, as a proxy for land use by hens, showed that 16–21% of outdoor area in grassland paddocks and 22–39% of area in a forest paddock were used by the hens. Sand and limestone were tested as P retention materials in areas with high manure load in a field study during the outdoor season for laying hens (May 1 to October 31 in 2018). The materials were placed on the ground (0.2 m deep bed, 3.3 m wide) outside the pop-hole in paddocks with 76 hens. The average numbers of hens outdoors were recorded at 9 am and 3 pm daily. There was no significant difference between the materials concerning distribution of hens, and they seemed not to prefer any material more than the other. When cylinders containing the spent materials were exposed to simulated rainfalls in a laboratory study, the P concentrations in drainage water were high for all materials, including a control with gravel (58–136 mg PO4-P L−1 and 130–197 mg total-P L−1). On average, 14% of manure P retained in the sand and limestone materials was leached after 100 mm of simulated rainfall. Thus, these materials may act as physical filters for P in manure, but to reduce the risk of P losses to waters during the following winter, they need to be removed from the paddocks and preferably used as potential P fertilizers on arable land. © 2021, The Author(s).

Lightweight gates of high-strength steel for improved worker safety and cattle handling This report presents the work with developing a lightweight gate of high-strength steel for the handling of cattle. The project was conducted as a European Innovation Partnership (EIP) project. The project group consisted of co-workers from the unit of Agriculture and Horticulture and the unit of Process and Environmental Engineering at Research Institutes of Sweden (RISE Jordbruk och trädgård och RISE Kretsloppsteknik), Parsteel AB (former Nilssons Plåtindustri AB), SSAB EMEA AB, Sophie Atkinson at Smart Animal Handling, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences (SLU) in Skara and the cattle farmer Lars Olsson. The main objectives of the project were to develop a lightweight gate weighing at least 50% less and being three times as strong as a traditional gate for cattle handling. The main motive was to improve the ergonomic conditions and working environment for the animal handlers. Additionally, for the safety of both animals and handlers, the gate must withstand the loads from cattle. Other objectives were to design and construct a gate that does not exceed the price of a high-quality gate and not contribute to increased negative environmental impact. A lightweight gate can be made of various materials such as plastic, fiberglass or steel. Regarding the project group's participants and their competencies, in addition to the numerous requirements placed on a lightweight gate, the choice fell on high-strength steel. High-strength steel is characterized by having high yield strengths, up to 1300 MPa, in comparison with traditional construction steel with yield strength of 355 MPa. For the specific lightweight gate, steel pipes with a yield strength of approximately 750 MPa were chosen. These pipes are mainly used in the automotive and engine industry, where high demands are placed on strength while at the same time a light construction is desired. The gate itself was designed during the project and several details were examined and developed in regard to functionality and safety for both cattle and handlers. The work environment legislation states that gates must be dimensioned and anchored so that the animals cannot break out (AFS 2008:17). The gates must also not pose a risk of injury to the cattle. In order to work safely with cattle, knowledge of cattle behavior is essential and consequently the report contains a chapter describing cattle senses and behavior. Both the lightweight gates and the handling system, built up by the gates, must be adapted to the cattle. In the project, the bud box handling system was tested. The handling system was originally developed to make use of the behavioral characteristics of cattle to encourage forward movement in the desired direction. In the project the handling system's functionality and safety, by using lightweight gates and additional equipment and components, were further designed. The handling system was tested in two groups of heifers at the SLU Götala Beef and Lamb Research Centre. The lightweight gates were also tested in a dairy herd and a beef herd, while hoof trimming, and at a small-scale abattoir. Generally, the light weight of the gates was considered an advantage as the handling of the gates is simplified also resulting in more frequent use of the gates, increasing safety for both animals and humans. During the project, several strength tests were performed by building unique test rigs. In one test rig, the weld of the pipes of the lightweight gate was tested. In another test rig, the strength of lightweight gates, compared with traditional gates on the market, were tested. The outcome of the tests confirmed the original aim of the project, a lightweight gate made of high-strength steel, about 50% lighter and at least three times as strong as traditional gates, had been developed and designed during the project period.

This report reviews various measurement techniques and methods for assessing meat quality in lamb and beef after slaughter. It has mainly been based upon searches in databases of scientific literature, but also on discussions with industry people and colleagues.

The concept of meat quality is multifaceted and not easily defined. At the same time, most people who appreciate a good piece of meat would agree on that tough meat should be avoided. Hence, one property that has attained considerable attention in the literature is tenderness. Another characteristic that is usually emphasized as something positive is marbling, partly due to several studies that have indicated a relation between marbling and taste, juiciness and tenderness, all being properties that are important for a positive eating experience. Other features that attract attention are e.g. fatty acid composition, water retention ability, pH and colour.

The first attempts to find an objective method for tenderness measurement were based on mechanical methods. Essentially a spear-like object that was shot into the meat, while the resulting force was measured. For measurement of other parameters, such as pH, relatively traditional techniques were similarly used, based on more or less analogue technology. However, in recent decades there has been an increasing amount of studies using techniques that have benefited from the exponential development of digital and solid-state technologies. This development has e.g. led to easier ways to generate, measure and analyse electromagnetic, optical and acoustic signals.

A common approach in simpler measurement methods is trying to find an algorithm that is based on analysis of the frequency response of a signal that typically may be of electrical nature, ultrasound or light. Methods utilizing NIR have been particularly promising. One example of NIR equipment is NitFom^TM, which is used for quality assessment of fat in pork meat. Methods based on measurement of electrical impedance have also, at least periodically, found establishment on the market.

There are also more advanced approaches, with the ambition to obtain spatial resolution of properties within the object under assessment. For measurements with three-dimensional resolution, primarily computer tomography imaging (CTI) and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) are candidates, but also ultrasound. Hitachi-Aloka, makes ultrasonic equipment that can be used for scanning live animals, and another example of ultrasonic equipment is ECM EXAGO. MRI and CTI, however, are still too expensive, advanced and slow to be realistic alternatives for online measurement in the industry in the near future.

MRI and CTI are developments of NMR (Nuclear Magnetic Resonance) and X-ray. While also NMR seems to be a little too expensive for industrial applications, and primarily a lab tool, X-rays have been used in the meat industry since the 1970s, e.g. for measurement of fat content. One commercial product that early found establishment on the market is Anyl-Ray Oystar.

The development of the digital camera opened up for advanced image processing. There are several studies based on analysis of the kind of information that can be extracted from RGB images, so-called vision technology, but also on analysis of images that contain much more detailed spectral information, so-called hyper- or multispectral image analysis. However, analysis of the amount of information that is collected with the latter kind of technology requires large computation and data management capabilities. In this context, the continuing development towards more accessible computational power is highly valued.

While image processing based on RGB information has been successful in measuring more or less what is also perceived by human eye (in this context such parameters as marbling and colour), hyperspectral image analysis has shown potential to go one step further. In addition to visual properties, the technology has shown promising results in measuring such things as chemical composition (e.g. proportions of fat, protein and water), pH and tenderness. Much resources have been invested in development of functional systems for online classification of meat in the industry. The results have been promising, and companies have been started up for the purpose, but the definitive breakthrough has not yet taken place.

In conclusion, several attempts have been made to find objective measurement methods for assessing and potentially classifying meat quality. Many promising results have been reported in the literature. Yet it is difficult to make any recommendations on one single salvaging technique based upon these results. Possibly, the technology that is currently attracting the most attention and hopes is hyperspectral image analysis, especially if the intention is to find a technology, suitable for forming the basis for a classification system. In such a context, hyperspectral imaging is a technology that meets many positive criteria: it is contact-free, it has spatial resolution, it combines advantages of both vision and NIR. There are also several studies that show promising results, and there is still good hope that the technology will develop further in near-time (both in terms of price and performance), hand in hand with the trend in society towards increased digitalisation (i.e. development of artificial intelligence, better and cheaper sensors, increased access to computational power, connected devices, etc.).

The aim was to contribute to more extensive knowledge and understanding of the specific risks related to beef cattle handling when moving cattle to hoof trimming. Results obtained can be used to identify measures to increase safety and decrease injuries when handling beef cattle in potentially stressful situations.

The moving of cattle to hoof trimming were studied on eight Swedish farms with beef production. Behavioural observations of handlers and animals were conducted, and the data was used to identify the type of interactions used to move the animals, the behaviour of the animals, interruptions in animal flow and any potential injury risks to handlers or animals. The animal handling to hoof trimming were studied from three perspectives: the handler, the animals and the handling facilities. The design of the handling facilities was reviewed on e.g. adequacy and safety using a checklist. Interviews were conducted with the farmers and included questions about perceived risks when moving the animals to hoof trimming, factors that impact risks and safety, how the handling facility functioned and possible improvements to ease handling or decrease risks.

The farms had similar handling system designs during hoof trimming, with the trimming chute placed in a feed alley in the free-stall and waiting pen and transfer alley built of gates. No system was optimally designed based on basic principles of cattle behaviour, e.g. that cattle want to follow each other and go with the herd, that they want to return the way they came and want to see the person who handles them. Shortcomings in the handling systems, observed on several farms, where that transfer alleys and gates were not properly secured, inadequate width of single-filed transfer alleys and that the width of the alleys was not fixed (thus eventually became too wide), and lack of well-functioning solutions to prevent animals from backing out of the single-filed alley. A common problem was also slippery floors, causing animals to frequently slip and even fall during handling.

The results show that the moving of beef cattle to hoof trimming can involve significant risks of the handler being run over, crushed or kicked. The magnitude of the injury risk associated with the handling depends on the behaviour of the handler and animals as well as the design of the handling system. Calm handling, avoiding putting stress on the animals, is fundamental. By designing the handling facility based on basic principles of cattle behaviour, interruptions in animal flow can be reduced and ease of handling can thereby be promoted. Several of the hazards observed on the farms were possible to prevent with limited efforts, for example by properly securing gates and transfer alleys and reducing the risk of slipping by keeping the floors clean from manure and cover the concrete floors with bedding material (e.g. wood shavings or straw). Many hazardous situations occurred when the animals were moved from the waiting pen to the transfer alley, and solutions to improve the facility design are needed to increase safety. Furthermore, there is a need to increase the farmers’ knowledge on how to attain a safe handling during hoof trimming.

Virtual fences have been developed over the last 20 years with focusing enabling an easy and flexible pasture management for goats, sheep, and cattle. The focus on research have been on the animal’s ability to learn to associate an audio cue with a future electrical stimulus and their ability to learn a correct avoiding behaviour in response to the audio cue. No research has focused on what the presence of already trained sheep have on the learning curve of naïve sheep. Thus, the aim of this study was to examine if sheep have a faster learning curve when trained together with sheep that already know how to react to the sound cues in comparison to a group of naïve sheep.

Fifteen, one year old sheep, where divided into two groups of five (group 1) and ten (group 2). Additional five sheep of the same age, that had been trained on virtual fence two months before, was included in group 1. One day 1 the sheep was moved to two rectangular pastures with 40 meters from the back of the fence line to the virtual fence line. On day 3 the virtual fence line was move additional 30 meter to simulate strip pasture. Number of audio and electrical stimuli was collected by the system.

A success rate was calculated as ((#audio cues – #electrical stimuli)/ #audio cues) as a measure of how well the animal have learnt to react correctly to the system. Data was analyses using a mixed model in SAS, with #audio cues, #electrical stimuli and success rate as dependent variables and group, day, and their interaction as fixed effects. Animal was defined as repeated measure.

Day affected average number of sound cues, with an increasing number of sound cues from day 1 to day 5 (2.95 vs 8.25 ± 1.2, P<0.05). Furthermore, Group 1 had a higher success rate than Group 2 (0.94 ± 0.05 vs 0.75 ± 0.04, P<0.05). No other significant effects were found.

The results conclude that sheep learn to use a virtual fence and they get better over time. Additionally, it can be concluded that social transmission occur when sheep are being trained to use a virtual fence together with already trained sheep.

A method for evaluating cleaning effect based on Bacillus cereus spores was developed and tested in a model system designed to resemble actual farm conditions. A test rig with four removable sampling plates was mounted in a milk line. The plates were attached at the end of T-junctions protruding either 15 or 3-times the milk pipe diameter from the main loop to reflect different levels of cleaning difficulty. In each cleaning test, B. cereus spores were applied to the four sampling plates to simulate soil. A series of cleaning tests was conducted at 35, 45, 55 and 65C with six commercial chlorine-free, alkaline detergents; three liquid and three powder-based products. A commercial alkaline detergent with chlorine, a sodium hydroxide solution, a sodium hydroxider/hypochlorite solution and pure water were also tested. Triplicate tests were performed with each cleaning solution, giving a total of 120 cleaning tests. The cleaning effect was evaluated by comparing the number of spores before and after cleaning. At all temperatures, the two chlorine-based cleaning solutions gave significantly greater reductions in B. cereus spores than the chlorine-free products. All six commercial chlorine-free, alkaline detergents generally gave similar cleaning effects, with no differences in the performance of powder-based and liquid forms. The mechanical spore reduction effect with water alone was greater (15-18 log-units) than the additional chemical effect of sodium hydroxide or chlorine-free detergents (05-12 log-units). The chlorine-based solutions had a considerably more powerful chemical effect (2-4 log-units depending on temperature). In general, an increase in cleaning solution temperature up to 55C gave a greater reduction in spores. A further increase to 65C did not improve cleaning effectiveness. © 2010 Proprietors of Journal of Dairy Research.

Att hägna in nya betesytor och underhålla stängsel är en mycket kostsam och arbetskrävande del av betesdriften och det finns behov av att hitta enkla och flexibla metoder för detta. Virtuell stängselteknik skulle kunna vara en lösning då djurhållaren på några få sekunder med hjälp av en app i sin telefon kan hägna in, flytta och ändra form på sitt betesområde. Intresset för tekniken är stor både i Sverige och övriga världen men kunskapen om och hur tekniken fungerar och kan användas i Sverige har hittills varit begränsad. Målet med projektet var därför att förmedla kunskap om virtuella stängsel för betesdjur samt om och hur tekniken skulle kunna användas inom svensk animalieproduktion. Syftet var att genom (1) litteraturgenomgång, (2) kontakt med myndigheter, branschorganisationer, företag, forskare och lantbrukare, (3) studiebesök hos brukare av tekniken samt (4) workshop sammanställa befintlig kunskap och erfarenheter vid användning av virtuella stängsel, beskriva teknikens funktion, dess potential men också vilka utmaningar som finns för framtida implementering och användning av tekniken i Sverige. Inom projektet som pågick mellan 2019 och 2021 har det blivit tydligt att potentialen framför allt ligger i en minskad arbetsinsats i form av mindre arbete kopplat till stängsling och möjligheten att beta områden som förut inte varit lönsamma att beta. Tekniken skulle därför kunna bidra till nya typer av ”betessystem och betestjänster” och därmed ha potential att bidra till fler betande djur, ett mer differentierat landskap och till ökad biologisk mångfald. Tekniken bidrar dessutom till förbättrad kontroll och övervakning av betesdjuren på individnivå då den ger information om deras position dygnet runt. Den största utmaningen med tekniken är att den i nuläget inte är godkänd att användas i Sverige enligt svensk djurskyddslagstiftning. I en utredning, beställd av Jordbruksverket, framkom att det krävs mer kunskap om hur djurvälfärden påverkas vid användning av tekniken innan ett eventuellt godkännande. Andra områden som lyfts fram som viktiga för att tekniken ska bli intressant för framtida användning är en god batterikapacitet samt hur tekniken samspelar med rovdjur och allmänheten. För att ge Jordbruksverket mer kunskap kring hur djurvälfärden påverkas av tekniken kommer RISE i samarbete med SLU med start betessäsongen 2021 påbörja omfattande forskningsstudier. Dessutom har flertalet forskargrupper runt om i världen genomfört och planerar för fler forskningsstudier inom samma ämnesområde.