This paper reports experimental and finite element investigations conducted to assess the shear strength of corrugated web girders in stainless steel. The steel under consideration is LDX 2101. Four trapezoidal corrugated web girders were tested under shear. All tested girders reached the shear yield strength followed by strain hardening. An imperfection sensitivity study was done with the aid of finite element modelling. It was observed that an initial geometric imperfection based on the first eigen buckling mode with a maximum amplitude of the minimum dimension of the critical corrugation sub panel divided by 200, 𝑎max200⁄, leads to an ultimate shear strength greater than the shear yield strength and close to the test findings. It is concluded that EN 1993-1-5 shear design model for corrugated webs is conservative for stainless steel girders tested in the current study.

In Sweden, use of industrial residues is still hindered by concern for their long-term properties. A three-year research project was therefore initiated aiming to (1) identify the crucial processes of ageing related to the usefulness of residues in roads; (2) investigate the consequences of these processes for technical and environmental properties of the residues, and (3) propose a method for accelerated ageing to predict the long-term properties. This paper gives an overview of the project methodology, a summary of the test results and references to papers where further details are given. The project, running through 2006-2008, compared naturally aged samples of two residues used as sub-bases in existing asphalt paved roads with samples of fresh residues from producers' piles. Steel slag of electric arc furnace (EAF) type and municipal solid waste incinerator (MSWI) bottom ash were chosen. The samples were thoroughly characterised in order to identify which ageing processes had been crucial. The results showed that: - Bottom ash from the pavement edge was more aged than bottom ash from the road centre. However, no difference in pH was found, instead the differences were caused by differences in water exposure. - Steel slag from the pavement edge showed traces of carbonation and leaching processes, whereas slag from the road centre was identical to fresh slag. - Water exposure to the subbase materials after ten years in an asphalt paved road was calculated to less than 0.1–0.5 litres per kg. - Ageing reactions in steel slag and MSWI bottom ash, ready for use, were too small to be verified by laboratory measurement of deformation properties under loaded conditions. An accelerated ageing test for steel slag was set up to achieve the carbonation (decrease in pH) and leaching that was observed in the pavement edge material. An accelerated ageing test for bottom ash was set up to achieve the pozzolan reactions that were observed in SEM analyses of in situ specimens. It is recommended to use uncrushed particles when properties of aged material are studied, in order to preserve the original particle surfaces.

The layer-by-layer (LbL) deposition method was used for the build-up of alternating layers of nanofibrillated cellulose (NFC) or carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) with a branched, cationic polyelectrolyte, polyethyleneimine (PEI) on flexible poly (lactic acid) (PLA) substrates. With this procedure, optically transparent nanocellulosic films with tunable gas barrier properties were formed. 50 layer pairs of PEI/NFC and PEI/CMC deposited on PLA have oxygen permeabilities of 0.34 and 0.71 cm3·μm/m 2·day·kPa at 23 C and 50% relative humidity, respectively, which is in the same range as polyvinyl alcohol and ethylene vinyl alcohol. The oxygen permeability of these multilayer nanocomposites outperforms those of pure NFC films prepared by solvent-casting. The nanocellulosic LbL assemblies on PLA substrates was in detailed characterized using a quartz crystal microbalance with dissipation (QCM-D). Atomic force microscopy (AFM) reveals large structural differences between the PEI/NFC and the PEI/CMC assemblies, with the PEI/NFC assembly showing a highly entangled network of nanofibrils, whereas the PEI/CMC surfaces lacked structural features. Scanning electron microscopy images showed a nearly perfect uniformity of the nanocellulosic coatings on PLA, and light transmittance results revealed remarkable transparency of the LbL-coated PLA films. The present work demonstrates the first ever LbL films based on high aspect ratio, water-dispersible nanofibrillated cellulose, and water-soluble carboxymethyl cellulose polymers that can be used as multifunctional films and coatings with tailorable properties, such as gas barriers and transparency. Owing to its flexibility, transparency and high-performance gas barrier properties, these thin film assemblies are promising candidates for several large-scale applications, including flexible electronics and renewable packaging.

To facilitate the long term durability predictions of nuclear waste repositories, acceleration methods enhancing calcium leaching process from cementitious materials are needed, even though mechanisms not necessarily comparable to those predominant in a natural leaching process may be developed. In the previously published acceleration methods the samples are very small, which limits further physical or mechanical tests. In this paper, a new acceleration method based on electro-chemical migration is presented. The method although not driven with the same kinetics as in natural leaching, was designed in such a way that unnecessarily destructive by-effects could be minimized while promoting a higher leaching rate for a sample size suitable for further testing the mechanical and physical properties. It is shown that approximately 1 × 106C of electrical charge per paste specimen of size Ø50 × 75 mm (approximately 230 g) is required to leach out the total amount of Portlandite. The chemical and mineralogical properties of leached samples are characterized by various techniques. It is concluded that aged samples are comparable to those leached in a natural leaching process as both are characterized by a layered system comprising an unaltered core delineated by total dissolution of Portlandite followed by a progressive decalcification of the calcium silicate hydrate gel.

The aim of this study is to design a nanocellulose based barrier film. For this purpose, cellulose nanofibrils (CNFs) are used as a matrix to create an entangled nanoporous network that is filled with two different nanofillers: nanoclay (reference), i.e. the mineral montmorillonite (MMT) and the bio-based TEMPO-oxidized cellulose nanocrystal (CNC-T), to produce different types of nanocelluloses and their main physical and chemical features were assessed. As expected, films based on neat CNFs exhibit good mechanical performance and excellent barrier properties at low moisture content. The introduction of 32.5 wt% of either nanofiller results in a significant improvement of barrier properties at high moisture content. Finally, thermal treatment of a dried CNF/CNC-T film results in a decrease of the oxygen permeability even at high moisture content (>70 %). This is mainly attributed to the hornification of nanocellulose. A key result of this study is that the oxygen permeability of an all-nanocellulose film in 85 % relative humidity (RH), is similar to CNF film with mineral nanoclay (MMT), i.e. 2.1 instead of 1.7 cm3 µm m−2 day−1 kPa−1, respectively.

Diffusion kinetics and structural properties of chemically strengthened titania-doped soda-lime silicate glasses were studied by depth-resolved X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, Raman spectroscopy and spectrophotometry. The glasses were ion exchanged, whereby Na+ in the glass was replaced by K+ in a molten salt bath, at four different treatment temperatures between 350 and 500 °C. The alkali diffusion coefficient, DK-Na, and corresponding activation energy were calculated to be between 3.26×10−12 and 4.47×10−11 cm2s−1 and between 101.1 kJmol−1 and 105.6 kJmol−1, respectively. DK-Na was observed to decrease as the TiO2 concentration was increased. Raman analysis showed Q3-silicate species with different bond lengths, which was attributed to surface compressive stresses, and increasing Si-O-Si bond angle with increasing ion exchange temperature. Ti3+ ions exist as a minor species in the glasses and its concentration depends on the TiO2 content. Deconvolution of the optical absorption spectra reveals Jahn-Teller compressive distortion of the Ti3+ octahedral coordination.

Diffusion kinetics and structural properties of chemically strengthened titania-doped soda-lime silicate glasses were studied by depth-resolved X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, Raman spectroscopy and spectrophotometry.

Chemical strengthening (CS) is frequently used to strengthen thin glasses. CS of glass is based on ion exchange of larger ions from a molten salt into glass. Both the ion and counter ion are conventionally monovalent alkali ions.

Diffusion kinetics and structural properties of chemically strengthened titania-doped (TiO2) soda-lime silicate (SLS) glasses were studied by depth-resolved X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, Raman spectroscopy and spectrophotometry. The glasses were ion exchanged, whereby Na+ in the glass was replaced by K+ in a molten salt bath, at four different treatment temperatures between 350 and 500 °C.

The following samples were prepared and analyzed by X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy (XPS): (1) SLS, (2) 4.7% TiO2, and (3) 9.9% TiO2. The ion exchange procedure was performed for 5 h at four different temperatures below Tg (350, 400, 450 and 500 °C). Before XPS measurements, the samples were wet-etched using hydrofluoric (HF) acid to produce samples with six different etching depths.

The Raman scattered light was detected in the backscattering configuration employing linear polarization and 2400 lines/mm grating, and a 100x objective lens. Depth profile spectra were collected at six different depths of 0, 10, 20, 30, 40, and 50 µm for each glass sample, employing 12 scans with a 10 s exposure time for each scan.

Spectrophotometric measurements were conducted before and after K+/Na+ ion-exchange treatmeatment for 5 h at 500 °C, collected between 300 and 2500 nm.

An experimental evaluation of the most common bench-scale tests methods for fire toxicity was conducted by RISE Fire Research. The background of the work was the on-going discussion in the fire community on the applicability and relevance of these test methods.

The test methods included in the programme were the ISO/TS 19700 steady-state tube furnace (SSTF), the controlled atmosphere cone calorimeter (CACC), and the EN 45545-2 smoke chamber test (SC). In these tests the production of selected toxic gases was quantitatively analysed using FTIR. Tests for the measurement of toxic gas production were made with eleven different materials used as test specimens, both combustible and non-combustible materials. The materials were commercially available insulation products provided by EURIMA, the sponsor of the project. These materials should not be regarded as typical or fully representative of a product category.

The evaluation of the results from the different test methods was divided into combustible test specimens and non-combustible test specimens. That was because the test conditions in the first case are greatly influenced by the combustion behaviour of the test specimen, while in the second case the test conditions are more constant.

A general observation was that there in many cases was correlation between both species composition and level of toxic gas species yields between test methods when the combustion conditions were similar. In cases where yields differed significantly it could in most cases be explained by clear differences in test conditions.

For combustible materials it was concluded that the SSTF offers the best means for conducting tests at pre-decided and controlled flaming combustion conditions. The CACC does not give steady-state flaming combustion and the influence of vitiation was limited in the tests made. The SC generally accumulates a mixture of gases from both flaming and non-flaming combustion periods in a test, and the yields measured do not in those cases represent any specific combustion stage.

For non-combustible materials a general observation was that any of the test methods investigated in principle could be used since the influence on the test conditions from the material itself is limited compared to combustible materials. However, there were specific properties and limitations of the different test methods observed that are important to consider.

This paper describes studies carried out to examine the influence_x000D_ on strength and chloride ingress when Portland cement is replaced_x000D_ with limestone filler. In the chloride ingress study both an_x000D_ accelerated method and field exposure measurements up to one_x000D_ year were employed. The results show that the method of_x000D_ measuring the resistance to chloride ingress can have a major_x000D_ influence on the assessment of the effect of different binders._x000D_ Further, the effect on chloride resistance, when replacing Portland_x000D_ cement with limestone filler is strongly dependent of the_x000D_ replacement ratio. The effect on compressive strength when_x000D_ replacing Portland cement with limestone filler is also strongly_x000D_ dependent of the replacement ratio.

Chloride induced corrosion is one of the major causes for degradation of reinforced concrete structures. One of the most important factors in this process is the critical chloride content (chloride threshold value) in the vicinity of the reinforcement that causes initiation of corrosion. In this work the development of a practice-related approach that includes specimen shape, preconditioning, corrosion measurement techniques, and calculation concepts, for determining the critical chloride content are presented. The results in this study showed that the presented approach for determining chloride threshold values functioned fairly well, and suggestions for further improvement are proposed.

This paper describes a part of the work in the development of a "standard" test method for determining chloride threshold values required to initiate corrosion on reinforcement in concrete. The prerequisites of the test set-up are that the test conditions should be reasonably comparable to those in service and the test method should be fairly reproducible and as rapid as possible concerning the slow diffusion nature of the investigated phenomenon. This paper presents the results from a study on the influence of steel bar surface condition on chloride induced corrosion. Various electrochemical techniques were employed in the study to monitor the corrosion behaviour of the embedded bars with three different surface conditions. It is shown that the steel surface condition has a strong effect on the corrosion initiation of reinforcement in concrete, and can likely be the most decisive parameter attributing to the variability in the reported chloride threshold values.

With the aim of investigating kraft lignin as a raw material for carbon fibre production, different lignins have been stabilised in air at conditions varied according to a full factorial experimental design. The lignins under examination were purified kraft lignin powders originating from birch, spruce/pine and Eucalyptus globules, as well as lignin fibres originating from birch with 5 poly(ethylene oxide) (PEO) added as a plasticiser. The influence of temperature, time and heating rate on yield and glass-transition temperature (Tg) was investigated. The highest yield was achieved after stabilisation at 280°C during 2h with a heating rate of 0.2°C min -1. The Tg of all lignin powders was increased when stabilisation occurred under harsher conditions. X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy analysis (XPS) of both the outer surface and the cleaved cross-section of individual lignin/PEO fibres showed a clear gradient in the degree of chemical modification, with the major change occurring on the surface resulting in the appearance of a skin-core structure after stabilisation. The behaviour of the lignin fibres during stabilisation is similar to that of pitch-based fibres, indicating good possibilities for lignin as raw material for carbon fibre production.

The purpose of this study was to study the transport of monocarboxylic acids in chitosan films, since this is important for understanding and predicting the drying kinetics of chitosan from aqueous solutions. Despite the wealth of data on chitosan films prepared from aqueous monocarboxylic acid solutions, this transport has not been reported. Chitosan films were exposed to formic, acetic, propionic and butyric acid vapours, it was found that the rate of uptake decreased with increasing molecular size. The equilibration time was unexpectedly long, especially for propionic and butyric acid, nine months. A clear two-stage uptake curve was observed for propionic acid. Evidently, the rate of uptake was determined by acid-induced changes in the material. X-ray diffraction and infrared spectroscopy indicated that the structure of the chitosan acetate and buffered chitosan films changed during exposure to acid and during the subsequent drying. The dried films previously exposed to the acid showed less crystalline features than the original material and a novel repeating structure possibly involving acid molecules. The molar mass of the chitosan decreased on exposure to acid but tensile tests revealed that the films were always ductile. The films exposed to acid vapour (propionic and butyric acid) for the longest period of time were insoluble in the size-exclusion chromatography eluent, and they were also the most ductile/extensible of all samples studied.

This study explores the production and surface modification of microfibrillated cellulose (MFC), based on unbleached and bleached Pinus radiata pulp fibres. Unbleached Pinus radiata pulp fibres tend to fibrillate easier by homogenisation without pre-treatment, compared to the corresponding bleached MFC. The resulting unbleached MFC films have higher barrier against oxygen, lower water wettability and higher tensile strength than the corresponding bleached MFC qualities. In addition, it is demonstrated that carboxymethylation can also be applied for production of highly fibrillated unbleached MFC. The nanofibril size distribution of the carboxymethylated MFC is narrow with diameters less than 20 nm, as quantified on high-resolution field-emission scanning electron microscopy images. The carboxymetylation had a larger fibrillation effect on the bleached pulp fibres than on the unbleached one. Importantly, the suitability of hexamethyldisilazane (HMDS) as a new alternative for rendering MFC films hydrophobic was demonstrated. TheHMDS-modifiedfilmsmade of carboxymethylated MFC had oxygen permeability levels better than 0.06 mL mm m-2 day-1 atm-1,which is a good property for some packaging applications.

The Plat Sjambok Anorthosite crops out near Prieska Copper Mines in the Namaqua-Natal Province of southern Africa. It is a massif-type anorthosite, previously regarded as a late-tectonic intrusion and part of the ca. 1100 Ma bimodal Keimoes Suite. Our new ion probe U-Pb zircon data show that the Plat Sjambok massif intruded at 1259 ± 5 Ma, before the 1220 Ma Namaqua collision events and is thus approximately 150 million years older than the Keimoes Suite. Despite the proximity to Prieska Mines, the anorthosite is located in the Kaaien Terrane close to the Brakbos Fault, which is the boundary with the Areachap Terrane in which Prieska Mines is situated. We dated the Nelspoortjie Tonalite, the main country rock of the Plat Sjambok Anorthosite, by laser ablation ICPMS at 1273 ± 13 Ma. Both intrusions thus originated concurrently with the 1286-1241 Ma volcanic rocks of the Areachap Group, which developed in a subduction-related arc setting, prior to its collision with the Kaaien Terrane and Kaapvaal Craton. Metamorphic zircon rims in the Plat Sjambok Anorthosite give an age of 1122 ± 7 Ma, a time that corresponds to a quiet period in the Areachap Terrane. We propose a tectonic model in which formation of the Nelspoortjie Tonalite and Plat Sjambok Anorthosite was driven by intrusions from the mantle into a back-arc related tensional environment within the Kaaien Terrane, possibly situated above an Archaean crustal tongue. This led to heating in a thickened crustal setting in which the tonalite originated as a partial melt of amphibolite. The anorthosite then formed as a mixture of mantle-derived gabbro and Archaean crustal rocks, which explains the 2100-2600 Ma zircon-Hf crustal residence ages and the Sm-Nd trend towards an old crustal source. The anorthosite and its country rocks were only juxtaposed with the Prieska Copper Mining District by late-tectonic uplift and transpressional movements on the Brakbos Fault towards the end of the Namaqua tectogenesis.

It is not uncommon that cover cracking, spalling, and delamination occur in many corroding RC structures. Previous research has mainly been concerned with corrosion levels leading to cover cracking along the main reinforcement, whereas corrosion of stirrups is often overlooked. Corrosion phenomena, including stirrup corrosion, were studied in an experimental investigation presented in this paper. High levels of corrosion were reached, up to 20% of the main bars and 34% of the stirrups legs. The occurrence of crack initiation, propagation, and cover delamination were examined. The specimens had the shape of a beam end and were corroded with an accelerated method; an imposed current was used, taking care to keep the current density as low as practically possible for the duration of the laboratory testing. The effects of this process were compared with those of natural corrosion using models from the literature. The location of the bar, middle and corner placement, the amount of transverse reinforcement, and the corrosion level of longitudinal reinforcement and of transverse reinforcement were studied. The results concerning the concrete cracking in the experimental campaign are presented. The crack patterns and widths were analyzed, showing differences between specimens with or without stirrups and whether stirrups were corroding. Finally, the effect of corrosion was simulated as the expansion of corrosion products in a finite-element (FE) model, and the results, mainly the crack pattern and width, were compared with the test results. The conclusions addressed the importance of taking into consideration both high corrosion levels and corrosion of stirrups for the assessment of deteriorated structures.

Nine Fe–HA composites were fabricated via powder metallurgy method by varying the amount (2.5, 5, 10 wt%) and particle size (< 1 Όm, 1–10 Όm, 100–200 Όm) of hydroxyapatite (HA) as a bioactive phase in the iron (Fe) matrix. X-ray diffraction did not detect any phase changes in HA after the sintering process. Uniaxial tensile tests measured the strengths of the composites. Polarization and immersion tests estimated the corrosion rates (CR). Yield strength, tensile strength, and ductility of the composites decreased with increasing HA content and decreasing HA particle size, whereas their corrosion rates increased. The strongest composite was Fe–2.5 wt% HA (100–200 Όm) with σy = 81.7 MPa, σu = 130.1 MPa, fracture strain of 4.87%, and CR = 0.23 mmpy. The weakest composite was Fe–10 wt% HA (< 1 Όm) which did not exhibit plastic deformation, fractured at σu = 16.1 MPa with 0.11% strain, and showed the highest CR of 1.07 mmpy. This study demonstrates how the relative particle size between Fe and HA determines the mechanical and corrosion properties of Fe–HA composites, thereby aiding in enhancing future resorbable implant designs. The model can also be used when designing other bioactive composites (i.e. Ti–HA, Mg–HA) via powder metallurgy.

the edge beams. However, results from this study pointed out that in most cases there is a clear economic benefit to impregnate the bridge edge beams even if it has to be repeated every 15 years.

The recommended levels of ionizing radiation from construction materials in effective dose is set to a maximum of 1 mSv/year, EC (1996, 1999, 2013), ICRP (2007), IAEA (2011). By using a theoretical model proposed by the European Union (1999), this is equivalent to I-index 1. By using of concrete slabs with dimensions of 1.5 m × 1.5 m × 0.15 m, an empirical approach is suggested for the calculation of the I-index of naturally occurring ionizing radiation from construction materials. Measurements of 40K, 226Ra, 232Th and the total gamma radiation were conducted and the I-index values were calculated for each concrete mix. A good linear relationship could be established between measurements performed by the Swedish Cement and Research Institute (CBI) and the laboratory results acquired from the Radiation and Nuclear Safety Authority of Finland (STUK) and Centre de Recherches Pétrographique et Géochimiques/ Le Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CRPG/CNRS). The results indicate that 60 % of the investigated construction materials are in agreement with the stipulated levels set out by the EC (1999, 2013). The cause for the higher levels of ionizing radiation is often elevated concentrations of all the radioactive elements measured. Regarding the concrete samples yielding values of I-index > 1, 232Th makes the largest contribution.

In the building sector, net-zero energy performance targets and reduction of CO2 emissions are the main drivers for building integrated photovoltaics. Recent market studies [10,18,19] show the history and perspective of the global market in the BIPV sector and calculate a global compound annual growth rate of ~ 40 % from 2009 up to 2020.

In Europe, the BIPV market is in a transition. The past decades of a slowly emerging BIPV market have been characterized by the original dominant value of BIPV: a building that communicates an image of sustainability and innovation. Payback time or "return on investment" have not been the major parameters in the decision process for applying BIPV. This is changing now. In most European countries, the new regulations on energy performance in buildings (derived from the European Energy Performance of Buildings Directive and the Directive on energy efficiency) have been translated in national regulations/laws, stating that all new (and freshly refurbished) buildings of the EU member states should be nearly zero energy buildings (nZEBs) by 2020. Thus, the time for the regulations to become mandatory is very near. It is expected that the energy performance regulations are now taking over as the main driving factor for the BIPV market and that should have huge consequences in removing the difference between a conventional building component and a BIPV component both in aesthetical and construction terms. This has led to intensified research and development aiming to create BIPV products that come in a variety of colours and sizes, while at the same time being as close as possible to existing building components, to its requirements and how it is considered by the construction industry.

The given market overview of state-of-the-art coloured BIPV products clearly reveals that for all parts of a BIPV module (glass, polymers, PV-active layers), there are technical solutions available for colouring. Pilot projects utilizing coloured BIPV products have been built in numerous (mainly European) cities clearly demonstrating the maturity of these solutions.

The key aspect that has been slowing down the progress of implementation of these aesthetically appealing and technically sophisticated new products into a wider market are the costs. In this respect, a lot of effort has been made to improve and optimize the relationship between colour and efficiency/power generation of BIPV elements. The results of the past and on-going innovative research and intensified fundamental considerations are also summarized in this report.

Besides the colour perception of the coloured BIPV elements under solar irradiation which is essential for the acceptance of the exterior appearance of a building, also transparency and inside visual comfort of BIPV – windows and façade elements are essential for the users and inhabitants.