Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) simulations to predict forces from a Wind Propulsion Unit (WPU) on a ship hull are carried out to better understand the forces dependency on wind speed and angle. Three different Atmospheric Boundary Layer (ABL) stratifications, nominally unstable, neutral, and stable, are studied in a CFD environment to better understand how to reproduce these velocity profiles numerically and how much is their impact on the performance of a general ship’s hull equipped with a Flettner rotor. A series of 2D and 3D simulations with an empty domain are run to tune some numerical settings for a correct representation of the ABL. Simulations with a simplified hull and a Fletter rotor are run to purely analyse the differences between the profiles and their effects on a reproduceable geometry. The three different ABL profiles are tested for four different wind angles, producing an overview of the dependency of rotor and ship performance on wind speed profiles, wind angles and hull interaction. A clear impact of the wind profiles and the wind angle on the ship hull is visible on the rotor lift and drag coefficients, while in terms of ship performance, described by the ratio of the thrust and side force coefficients, the impact is limited

The need to reduce green-house gas emissions has renewed the interest in wind propulsion for commercial cargo vessels. When designing such modern “sailing” ships, naval architects often lean on methods and tools originally developed for the design of sailing yachts. The most common tool today is the steady-state Performance Prediction Program (PPP), typically used to predict quantities like speed, leeway, heel of the vessel when sailing in a range of wind directions and wind speeds. Steady state PPPs are very efficient and can be used to rapidly assess a large number of design alternatives. PPPs are, however, not able to consider dynamic effects such as unsteady sail forces due to ship motions in waves or the turbulent structure of the natural wind. In this paper we present time-domain simulations with a Dynamic Performance Prediction Program (DPPP) that can take the “unsteadiness” of the natural environment into account. The program is based on coupling an unsteady 3D fully nonlinear potential flow hydrodynamic solver to an efficient lifting-line aerodynamic model. Particular attention is paid to a recently implemented unsteady aerodynamic model that employs an indicial response method based on Wagner’s function. The usefulness of such advanced simulations for performance prediction in moderate environmental conditions is investigated for a wind-powered cargo vessel with wing sails. Control system strategies such as sheeting of the wing sails close to stall are studied.

Rapid performance prediction tools are required for the evaluation, optimization, and comparison of different wind propulsion systems (WPSs). These tools should capture viscous aerodynamic flow effects in 3D, particularly the maximum propulsion force, stall angles, and interaction effects between the lift-generating units. This paper presents a rapid aerodynamic calculation method for wing sails that combines a semi-empirical lifting line model with a potential flow-based interaction model to account for 3D interaction effects. The method was applied to a WPS that consisted of several wing sails with considerable interaction effects. The results were compared to CFD RANS simulations in 2D and in 3D. For the evaluated validation cases, the interaction model improved the prediction considerably compared to when the interaction was not accounted for. The method provided acceptable driving force, moments, and stall predictions, with negligible computational cost compared to 3D CFD simulations. 

Wind propulsion technology for modern cargo vessels has developed from non-existing to a viable industry in a few years and it is expected to expand further before the decade is out. This calls for standardisation of methods and terminology. A specialist committee under the International Towing Tank Conference (ITTC) is currently developing guidelines for performance indicators, performance prediction methods and sea trial methods for wind assisted ships. This paper outlines the scope and methodology of the draft guidelines. 

Shipping is a critical component of global trade but also accounts for a substantial portion of global greenhouse gas emissions. Recognising this issue, the International Maritime Organisation (IMO) has implemented new measures aimed at determining the energy efficiency of all ships and promoting continuous improvements, such as the Energy Efficiency Existing Ship Index (EEXI). As Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) can be used to calculate the EEXI value, RISE-SSPA1 and Flowtech have developed a CFD-based method for predicting full-scale ship performance with SHIPFLOW v7.0, which meets the new requirements of IMO. The method is validated through an extensive comparison study that examines the delivered power and propeller rotation rate between full-scale CFD predictions and high-quality sea trials using 14 common cargo ships of varying sizes and types. The comparison between the CFD predictions and 59 sea trials shows that both delivered power and RPM can be predicted with satisfactory accuracy, with an average comparison error of about 4% and 2%, respectively. The numerical methods used in this study differ significantly from the majority of the state-of-the-art CFD codes, highlighting their potential for future applications in ship performance prediction. Thorough validation with a large number of sea trials is essential to establish confidence in CFD-based ship performance prediction methods, which is crucial for the credibility of the EEXI framework and its potential to contribute to shipping decarbonisation.

Wind-powered ship propulsion (WPSP) is the concept where the wind is the main source of thrust, while the traditional propulsion system operates when needed. This type of propulsion can lead to considerably reduced emissions, something that the shipping community is striving for. A well-known example of WPSP is the Oceanbird with the goal to cut emissions of up to 90%. In this study, the propeller design process for a wind-powered car-carrier (wPCC) such as the Oceanbird is investigated, what the various challenges of WPSP are and therefore how an automated optimisation procedure should be approached. A controllable-pitch propeller was selected as suitable propeller type for the operation of the wPCC, and various functions such as windmilling, feathering and harvesting have been explored. Regarding the optimisation procedure, an essential input is the definition of the operational profile, in order to determine the most important conditions for the route. The main objective of the optimisation is the minimisation of the total energy consumption (TEC), calculated based on a selection of conditions using the potential flow solver MPUF-3A. Cavitation has been evaluated by the blade designer, through an interactive optimisation method. The results showed that designing and optimising for the most highly loaded condition led to solutions with the lowest TEC. © 2022 The Author(s)

Shipping is vital for global trade but also emits significant greenhouse gases. To address this issue, various measures have been proposed, including improved ship design, alternative fuels, and improved operational practices. One such cost-effective operational measure is trim optimisation, which involves operating the ship at the hydrodynamically optimal forward and aft draughts. This study focuses on investigating the trim trends of a RoPax vessel using experimental fluid dynamics (EFD) and computational fluid dynamics (CFD) methods. The trim trends are derived in resistance and self-propelled modes. Multiple CFD methods are examined, along with different extrapolation techniques for experimental results. Uncertainty assessment is conducted for the experimental data, and a verification and validation study is performed. Furthermore, the predictions are compared with real operational data. The findings reveal that determining trim trends solely in towed mode is inadequate due to the profound influence of the operating propeller. Some of the investigated CFD methods demonstrate good agreement with the model test results in self-propelled mode, while others exhibit limitations. By selecting appropriate models and configurations, this study demonstrates that trim trends can be determined with sufficient precision, as evidenced by the comparison between ship operational data and predictions from EFD and CFD methods. 

Wind propulsion has emerged as one out of many possible solutions to reduce GHG emissions from ships. The industry for wind propulsion solutions develops rapidly. This calls for some industry standardisation. A committee under ITTC is currently working on recommended procedures for performance indicators, performance prediction methods and sea trial procedures for wind powered ships. This paper proposes indicators that can enable fair comparison and facilitate the investment decision. A new sea trial procedures for wind propulsion solution verification is also proposed. Finally, the application of performance models in cost-saving split agreements, monitoring and weather routing of wind powered ships are discussed.

The need to reduce green-house gas emissions from shipping has reborn the interest in wind propulsion for commercial cargo vessels. This places new requirements on the tools used in ship design, as well as the methods usually applied in sailing yacht design. A range of design tools are used by designers at various stages in the design of wind-assisted ships and for different purposes. One important tool is the steady-state velocity prediction program (VPP) which is typically used to predict the speed of the vessel when sailing in a range of wind directions and wind speeds. Steady-state VPPs can be very efficient and fast and may be used to rapidly assess a large number of design alternatives. However, steady-state VPPs are not able to consider dynamic effects such as unsteady wave forces on the hull which may require the rudder to be active to control the heading and course of the vessel. This, in turn, leads to different mean forces than those predicted by a static VPP and therefore the sailing performance may be reduced compared to the predictions of a static VPP. Another effect of the ship’s motions in a seaway is that the angles of attack of the sails fluctuate, which can lead to different optimum sheeting angles and possibly a loss of performance. This study uses an unsteady 3D fully nonlinear potential flow hydrodynamic model coupled with an efficient lifting-line aerodynamic model to investigate the differences in sailing performance of a vessel sailing in steady conditions to the performance when sailing in a seaway and gusty wind based on a spatio-temporal wind model. The analysis shows clearly that the unsteady wind model affects the predicted performance. This is especially the case when sailing close-hauled and on a beam reach, where large changes in the local sail angles of attack can be observed.

An efficient numerical method is proposed to estimate delivered power and speed loss for a ship in wind and waves. The added resistance in waves, obtained with an unsteady potential flow panel method, is added to the calm water resistance from a steady-state potential flow/RANS method coupled with a body force propeller model for self-propulsion. A comparison of numerical and experimental results is made for added resistance, calm water resistance and delivered power. A good agreement is obtained. As a practical application, the approach is used to calculate the weather factor, fw, of the Energy Efficiency Design Index (EEDI). The calculated weather factor is consistent with the values derived from full-scale measurements included in a database of similar ships. © 2023 The Author(s)